Historiography : Indian Tradition
Historiography in the Ancient Period
Oral Tradition:
- In ancient India, history was preserved through oral recitals (stories told by word of mouth).
- People memorized great deeds of ancestors, mythological stories, and social changes.
- Example: Stories of kings and gods were passed down orally.
Writing in Ancient India:
- The Harappan civilization (around 3rd millennium BCE) had a script, seen on seals and artefacts, but it is not yet decoded.
- The earliest written historical records are inscriptions from Emperor Ashoka’s time (3rd century BCE).
- Ashoka’s edicts (messages) were carved on rocks and stone pillars.
- They give information about his rule and policies.
Inscriptions as Sources:
- From the 1st century CE, inscriptions appeared on coins, sculptures, and copper plates.
- These provide details about:
- Names and dates of kings.
- Dynasties (family lines of rulers).
- Territories and administration.
- Social organization, climate, famines, and political events.
Example: Sohagaura Copper-plate (Mauryan period, found in Uttar Pradesh):
- Written in Brahmi script.
- Has symbols like ‘Tree-in-railing’ and ‘Mountain’ (also seen on coins).
- Mentions a granary (grain storage) and a royal order to distribute grains carefully during a famine.
Other Sources of History:
- Literature: Epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata, Puranas, Jain and Buddhist texts contain historical information.
- Travelogues: Foreign travellers (e.g., Megasthenes) wrote about India.
- Biographies:
- Harshacharit (7th century CE) by Banabhatta is a biography of King Harsha.
- It describes the social, economic, political, religious, and cultural life of Harsha’s time.
2.2 Historiography in the Medieval Period
New Styles of History Writing:
- Rajtarangini by Kalhana (12th century CE):
- A history of Kashmir, written in a style close to modern historiography.
- Kalhana used sources like inscriptions, coins, monuments, dynastic records, and local traditions.
- He critically examined these sources to write an accurate history.
Historians in Muslim Courts:
- Influenced by Arabic and Persian historiography.
- Ziauddin Barani (wrote Tarikh-i-Phiruz Shahi):
- Said historians should not only praise rulers but also write about their mistakes and bad policies.
- Suggested historians should study the impact of wise teachings and saints on society.
- Expanded the scope of historiography to include cultural aspects.
- Mughal historians focused on praising emperors and showing loyalty.
- They added poetic quotes and beautiful pictures to their writings.
- Example: Akbarnama by Abul Fazl is a critical and unbiased history of Akbar’s reign.
- Tuzuk-i-Babari by Babur (Mughal founder) is an autobiography describing battles, regions, economy, customs, and flora.
Foreign Travellers:
- Travellers like Ibn Battuta, Marco Polo, and Abdul Razzaq wrote about medieval India.
- Their accounts provide details about the Sultanate and Mughal periods.
- Example: Niccolao Manucci wrote about Aurangzeb’s time.
Bakhars:
- Bakhars are historical documents from medieval India, especially in Maratha history.
- They include stories of heroes, battles, and great men.
- Types of Bakhars: Biographies, dynastic histories, event descriptions, autobiographies, and myth-based stories.
Examples:
- Sabhasad Bakhar: Written by Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad, it describes Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj’s rule.
- Bhausahebanchi Bakhar and Panipatachi Bakhar: Describe the Battle of Panipat.
- Holkaranchi Kaiphiyat: Gives information about the Holkar family’s contributions to Maratha rule.
2.3 Historiography in the Modern Period
Archaeological Discoveries:
- British rule in the 20th century led to archaeological research in India.
- Sir Alexander Cunningham: First Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
- Excavated sites mentioned in Buddhist texts.
- Sir John Marshall: Discovered the Harappan Civilization, proving Indian history dates back to the 3rd millennium BCE.
British Historians:
- British officers wrote about Indian history but often showed bias against Indian culture.
- James Mill: Wrote The History of British India (1817), which was prejudiced and lacked objectivity.
- Mountstuart Elphinstone: Wrote The History of India (1841).
- Grant Duff: Wrote A History of the Mahrattas (3 volumes), but criticized Indian culture.
- William Wilson Hunter: Wrote somewhat impartially about Indian history.
Indian Historians’ Response:
- Indian historians like Nilkanth Janardan Kirtane and Vishwanath Kashinath Rajwade criticized Grant Duff’s biased writings.
3. Indian Historiography: Various Ideological Frameworks
This section explains different approaches to writing Indian history based on ideologies (beliefs or perspectives).
3.1 Colonial Historiography
What is it?
- History written by British officers and Christian missionaries during colonial rule.
- Showed prejudice against Indian culture to justify British rule.
Example: Cambridge History of India (1922-1937, 5 volumes) reflects colonial bias.
3.2 Orientalist Historiography
What is it?
- History written by European scholars who admired Eastern civilizations, especially India.
- Focused on Vedic traditions and Sanskrit literature.
Key Points:
- Orientalists studied similarities between Sanskrit and European languages.
- Suggested Sanskrit could be the mother of Indo-European languages.
- Sir William Jones: Founded the Asiatic Society in Kolkata (1784) to research Indian literature and history.
- Friedrich Max Muller:
- Translated Hitopadesh into German.
- Edited The Sacred Books of the East (50 volumes).
- Translated Rigveda into German (6 volumes).
Criticism: Edward Said later argued that Orientalist writings served imperialistic interests.
3.3 Nationalistic Historiography
What is it?
- History written by Indian historians to restore pride in India’s ancient glory.
- Aimed to boost the self-esteem of Indian readers.
Key Points:
- Inspired by Vishnushastri Chiplunkar in Maharashtra, who criticized biased British histories.
- Focused on India’s golden era but sometimes ignored critical analysis.
- V.K. Rajwade:
- Founded Bharat Itihas Samshodhak Mandal (1910) in Pune for historical research.
- Wrote 22 volumes of Marathyanchya Itihasachi Sadhane.
- Believed history should cover all aspects of society, not just wars and politics.
- Said history must be written using authentic documents.
- Vinayak Damodar Savarkar: Wrote The Indian War of Independence, 1857, highlighting the 1857 revolt as a freedom movement.
- Other historians: Mahadev Govind Ranade, Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar, R.C. Majumdar, etc.
Impact: Encouraged regional histories, especially in South India.
3.4 Historiography in the Post-Independence Era
Changes in Approach:
- Historians began writing about cultural, social, and economic histories, not just dynasties.
- Focused on communities, sciences, political ideologies, and cultural aspects.
Three Main Ideological Schools:
1. Marxist History
What is it?
- Focuses on means of production (e.g., tools, land), modes of production (e.g., farming, industry), and industrial relations.
- Analyzes the impact of social events on these factors.
Key Historians:
- Damodar Kosambi: Studied caste system transitions.
- Shripad Amrut Dange: Wrote Primitive Communism to Slavery.
- Others: Ram Sharan Sharma, Sharad Patil.
2. Subaltern History
What is it?
- Focuses on the history of the “bottommost ranks” of society (e.g., lower castes, marginalized groups).
- Inspired by Marxist ideas and Italian historian Antonio Gramsci.
Key Points:
- Uses folklore as a source.
- Ranjit Guha: Established subaltern history as an academic school.
- Mahatma Jyotirao Phule: Wrote Gulamgiri, highlighting the exploitation of shudras and atishudras.
- Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar: Wrote Who Were the Shudras and The Untouchables, focusing on Dalit history.
Significance: Highlighted the role of Dalits in shaping India’s culture and politics.
3. Feminist History
What is it?
- Focuses on the role and achievements of women in history, which were often ignored by male historians.
- Studies women’s writings and their position in society.
Key Points:
- Tarabai Shinde: Wrote Stripurush Tulana (1882), the first feminist book in India, criticizing male-dominated society.
- Pandita Ramabai: Wrote The High Caste Hindu Woman (1888).
- Post-independence feminist literature focused on women’s employment, workplace treatment, and political equality.
- Meera Kosambi: Wrote Crossing Thresholds, with essays on women like Pandita Ramabai and Dr. Rukhmabai (India’s first lady doctor).
- Sharmila Rege: Wrote about Dalit women’s autobiographies in Writing Caste, Writing Gender.
3.5 Other Notable Historians
Historians who did not follow a specific ideology:
- Sir Jadunath Sarkar, Surendra Nath Sen, Govind Sakharam Sardesai (called Riyasatkar for his work Marathi Riyasat).
- Tryambak Shankar Shejawalkar, Yashawant Dinkar Phadke, Ramchandra Guha.
Indian historiography was influenced by social and political movements but also developed independently.
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