Swarajya to Empire (Maratha Period)

Short Questions

1. Who is known as the Father of the Indian Navy?

Answer: Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj is known as the Father of the Indian Navy.

2. What was the first capital of Swarajya established by Shivaji Maharaj?

Answer: Rajgad was the first capital of Swarajya.

3. Which saint wrote Dasbodh and Manache Shlok?

Answer: Samarth Ramdas wrote Dasbodh and Manache Shlok.

4. Who was the chief of Shivaji Maharaj’s intelligence network?

Answer: Bahirji Naik was the chief of Shivaji Maharaj’s intelligence network.

5. Which treaty did Shivaji Maharaj sign with the Mughals in 1665?

Answer: Shivaji Maharaj signed the Treaty of Purandar in 1665.

6. Who led the Maratha resistance after Rajaram Maharaj’s death?

Answer: Maharani Tarabai led the Maratha resistance after Rajaram Maharaj’s death.

7. What was the basic unit of administration in Swarajya?

Answer: The village was the basic unit of administration in Swarajya.

8. Who was appointed as Peshwa after Balaji Vishwanath?

Answer: Bajirao I was appointed as Peshwa after Balaji Vishwanath.

9. Which battle significantly lowered Maratha morale in 1761?

Answer: The Third Battle of Panipat lowered Maratha morale in 1761.

10. Who composed the powada on the slaying of Afzalkhan?

Answer: Adnyandas composed the powada on the slaying of Afzalkhan.

11. What material was primarily used for the ground floor of Maratha wadas?

Answer: Stone was primarily used for the ground floor of Maratha wadas.

12. Which port was known for exporting silk, opium, and indigo?

Answer: Chaul was known for exporting silk, opium, and indigo.

13. Who wrote the Sanskrit text Budhabhushan?

Answer: Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj wrote the Sanskrit text Budhabhushan.

14. What was the name of the Maratha navy expert during Shivaji Maharaj’s time?

Answer: Kanhoji Angre was a Maratha navy expert during Shivaji Maharaj’s time.

15. Which Peshwa re-established Maratha power after the Panipat defeat?

Answer: Madhavrao Peshwa re-established Maratha power after the Panipat defeat.

Long Questions

1. How did the sants contribute to social awakening in Maharashtra during the Maratha period?

Answer: The sants, such as Sant Dnyaneshwar, Tukaram, and women sants like Janabai, promoted equality, humanity, and community harmony through their teachings. Their devotional songs provided moral support, fostering self-esteem and cultural pride among the masses. By countering superstition and fatalism, they created a sense of unity and resilience against adversities like invasions and droughts.

2. Why is Shahajiraje considered the visionary of Swarajya?

Answer: Shahajiraje envisioned an independent Maratha state, free from foreign rule, while serving as a sardar in Nizamshahi and Adilshahi courts. He entrusted his Jahagirs and the dream of Swarajya to his son Shivaji Maharaj and wife Veermata Jijabai in Pune. His strategic foresight and administrative experience laid the foundation for Shivaji Maharaj to establish Swarajya.

3. What was the significance of Shivaji Maharaj’s naval force in establishing Swarajya?

Answer: Shivaji Maharaj’s naval force, comprising 400 ships by 1675, was crucial for controlling coastal trade and protecting Swarajya from Portuguese and Siddi threats. He collaborated with Portuguese shipbuilders to create a formidable navy, earning the title “Father of the Indian Navy.” This maritime strength bolstered Swarajya’s economic and strategic dominance along the Konkan coast.

4. How did Maharani Tarabai contribute to the Maratha War of Independence?

Answer: Maharani Tarabai led the Maratha resistance against Aurangzeb after Rajaram Maharaj’s death, managing Swarajya under challenging conditions for 25 years. She encouraged Maratha expansion beyond Swarajya’s boundaries, shifting from defensive to offensive strategies. Her leadership, supported by sardars like Santaji Ghorpade, ensured the survival and growth of Maratha power.

5. What were the key features of the administrative system established by Shivaji Maharaj?

Answer: Shivaji Maharaj’s administration included the Ashtapradhan Mandal, a council of eight ministers, and a robust intelligence network led by Bahirji Naik. Swarajya was divided into provinces managed by Sarsubhedars, with villages as the basic unit supported by balutedars. His revenue system, based on the “Kathi” unit and yield-based assessments, ensured efficient governance and economic stability.

6. How did the Maratha defeat at Panipat impact their power, and who revived it?

Answer: The Third Battle of Panipat (1761) was a significant setback, lowering Maratha morale and weakening their political influence. Madhavrao Peshwa played a crucial role in reviving Maratha power by re-establishing their dominance in North India. Supported by leaders like Mahadji Shinde and Nana Phadnavis, he restored Maratha prestige and stability.

7. What role did Ahilyabai Holkar play in the Maratha empire?

Answer: Ahilyabai Holkar efficiently administered the Holkar State in Indore after her husband’s death, establishing Maheshwar as her seat. She built temples, ghats, and dharamshalas across pilgrim centers, showcasing her capability as an astute administrator. Her contributions strengthened Maratha influence and cultural development in the region.

8. How did Maratha miniature paintings reflect the cultural richness of the period?

Answer: Maratha miniature paintings, found on pothis and patrikas, illustrated texts like Bhagvat Gita and Dnyaneshwari with themes like Dashavatara and ragamalas. Using vibrant colors, they adorned manuscripts and wooden stands, depicting deities and royal processions. These artworks, along with murals in wadas and temples, highlighted the period’s artistic and cultural vibrancy.

9. What were the main characteristics of Maratha temple architecture?

Answer: Maratha temples, built in three styles, included large star-shaped designs, stone structures resembling Malwa/Rajasthan temples, and independent styles with arches and stucco sculptures. Examples like Kalaram in Nashik and Jejuri’s temples featured intricate shikharas, sabhamandapas, and deepmalas. Constructed with stone and brick, they reflected the architectural grandeur of the Peshwa period.

10. How did trade and industries flourish during the Maratha period?

Answer: Shivaji Maharaj fostered trade by establishing Peths and protecting local industries, such as imposing duties on Portuguese salt to boost Konkan’s salt trade. Ports like Chaul, Dabhol, and Rajapur exported goods like silk, pepper, and indigo, driving economic growth. The self-sufficient village economy, supported by balutedars and industries like textiles and metallurgy, ensured stability despite political changes.

Swarajya to Empire (Maratha Period)

Introduction

The Maratha period marks a significant era in Indian history, characterized by the rise of Maratha power under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, who established Swarajya (self-rule) in the 17th century. This period saw the transition from regional autonomy to a vast empire, challenging Mughal dominance and contributing to art, architecture, literature, and socio-economic development. The chapter covers the contributions of sants, the foundation and expansion of Swarajya, the Maratha War of Independence, administrative systems, and socio-cultural developments.

16.1 Contribution of Sants

Context: Medieval Indian society was plagued by superstition, rituals, and fatalism, leading to social inertia and misery among the common people.

Role of Sants:

• Sants in Maharashtra revitalized society by promoting equality, humanity, and community harmony.
• Their teachings countered the effects of foreign invasions, droughts, and natural calamities.
• They fostered a sense of belonging to native culture, language, and literature, boosting self-esteem among the masses.

Key Sants:

• Chakradhar Swami, Sant Namdev, Sant Dnyaneshwar, Sant Eknath, Sant Tukaram, Samarth Ramdas: Laid the foundation of the Bhakti movement.
• Women Sants: Sant Nirmalabai, Sant Muktabai, Sant Janabai, Sant Kanhopatra, Sant Bahinabai Siurkar.
• Other Sants: Sant Chokhamela, Sant Goroba, Sant Sawata, Sant Narhari, Sant Sena, Sant Shaikh Muhammad.

Impact:

• Their devotional songs provided moral support and created social awakening.
• They preached unity, love, and harmonious community life, strengthening societal resilience.

16.2 Foundation and Expansion of Swarajya

Political Background:

• Alauddin Khalji defeated the Yadavas of Devgiri, marking the start of Delhi Sultanate rule in South India.
• The Tughluq and Bahamani kingdoms followed, with the Bahamani kingdom later splitting into five sultanates, including Nizamshahi and Adilshahi in Maharashtra.
• Mughal expansion ended Nizamshahi, setting the stage for Shivaji Maharaj’s rise.

Role of Shahajiraje Bhosale:

• A prominent sardar in Nizamshahi, later joining Adilshahi as a Mansabdar.
• Managed Jahagirs in Pune, Supe, Shirwal, Indapur, and Chakan.
• Envisioned Swarajya, laying the ideological foundation for self-rule.
• Sent his wife, Veermata Jijabai, and son, Shivaji Maharaj, to Pune with capable associates to realize his vision.

Veermata Jijabai:

• A visionary and efficient administrator, she guided Shivaji Maharaj in establishing Swarajya.
• Provided education and instilled values necessary for leadership.

Shivaji Maharaj’s Contributions:

• Laid the foundation of Swarajya in the Mawal region, leveraging its difficult terrain and the valor of Mawalas.
• Captured forts like Torana, establishing Rajgad as the first capital.
• Defeated Chandrarao More to secure Javali, expanding activities in Konkan.
• Defeated Afzalkhan at Pratapgad (1659), gaining wealth and weapons.
• Escaped Siddi Jauhar’s siege at Panhala with the sacrifice of Shiva Kashid and Bajiprabhu Deshpande at Ghodkhind.
• Attacked Shaistakhan at Lal Mahal (1663) and looted Surat, Aurangzeb’s economic hub.
• Signed the Treaty of Purandar (1665) tactically, later escaping house arrest in Agra.
• Coronated in 1674 at Raigad, formalizing Swarajya’s sovereign status.
• Undertook the Karnataka expedition but passed away in 1680.

Naval Development:

• Built a navy with Portuguese assistance, creating a fleet of 400 ships by 1675.
• Controlled coastal trade and countered Siddi and Portuguese threats.
• Earned the title “Father of the Indian Navy.”

Key Associates: Kanhoji Jedhe, Tanaji Malusare, Netoji Palkar, Baji Pasalkar, Baji Prabhu Deshpande, Murarbaji Deshpande.

16.3 Maratha War of Independence

Context: After Shivaji Maharaj’s death, the Marathas faced continuous Mughal aggression under Aurangzeb.

Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj (1680-1689):

• Coronated after Shivaji Maharaj, he continued the fight against Aurangzeb.
• Allied with Aurangzeb’s rebellious son, Akbar.
• Brutally killed by Aurangzeb in 1689, but his death united the Marathas.

Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj (1689-1700):

• Took over after Sambhaji Maharaj, operating from Raigad and later Jinji.
• Faced Mughal attacks led by Zulfikar Khan, who captured Raigad in 1689.
• Maharani Yesubai and Prince Shahu were imprisoned in Delhi.
• Rajaram Maharaj, with leaders like Santaji Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav, used guerrilla tactics to resist Mughal forces.
• Successfully safeguarded Swarajya despite limited resources.

Maharani Tarabai (1700-1725):

• After Rajaram Maharaj’s death, she led Swaraji against Aurangzeb.
• Fought for 25 years under adverse conditions, encouraging Maratha expansion beyond Swarajya’s boundaries.
• Her leadership marked a shift from defensive to offensive strategies.

Outcome:

• Aurangzeb’s death in 1707 weakened Mughal power.
• The Maratha War of Independence transitioned from defending Swarajya to expanding Maratha influence across India.

16.4 Administrative System Established by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

Territorial Extent: Swarajya included Maharashtra (Nashik, Pune, Satara, etc.), parts of Karnataka (Belgaum, Karwar), Andhra, and Tamil Nadu (Jinji, Vellore).

Ashtapradhan Mandal:

• A council of eight ministers: Peshwa, Amatya, Sachiv, Mantri, Senapati, Sumant, Nyayadhish, Panditrao.
• Expanded with the kingdom’s growth, formalized post-coronation.

Intelligence Network:

• Led by Bahirji Naik, it provided critical information for expeditions.

Administrative Divisions:

• Swarajya was divided into two parts:
  1. Geographically bound province (Maharashtra and North Konkan), assigned to Peshwa, Sachiv, and Mantri.
  2. Scattered southern regions, with a separate Karnataka Subha under Hambirrao Mohite and Raghunath Narayan Amatya.
• Sarsubhedars (Deshadhikari) managed provincial administration, assisted by Deshmukhs and Deshpandes.

Revenue System:

• Replaced Malik Amber’s system with a new measurement unit, “Kathi” (5 cubits + 5 closed fists).
• Land measured in Bighas (20 Kathis) and Chavars (120 Bighas).
• Revenue based on yield quality and three-year average, excluding barren or grazing land.
• Deshmukhs collected revenue and developed cultivable land.

Village Administration:

• Villages were self-sufficient, with 12 balutedars (hereditary service providers like goldsmiths, blacksmiths).
• New villages received cattle, seeds, and loans under the Batai system (repayment after two years).

Key Officers:

• Darakdar, Diwan, Majumdar, Phadnis, Sabnis, Karkhanis, Chitnis, Jamdar, Potdar.
• Killedars (fort keepers) and Karkuns (clerks) appointed by the king.

Distinct Features:

• Unlike Islamic rulers, Swarajya’s Sarsubhas focused on overall administration, not just revenue collection.
• Officials received cash salaries, not land grants (watans).

16.5 Release of Shahu Maharaj

• Context: Post-Aurangzeb, the Mughals aimed to weaken the Marathas by releasing Shahu Maharaj in 1707.
• Conflict: Shahu Maharaj clashed with Maharani Tarabai, defeating her with Balaji Vishwanath’s support.
• Balaji Vishwanath: Appointed Peshwa, he played a key role in stabilizing Shahu Maharaj’s rule.

16.6 Peshwa Period

Balaji Vishwanath: Strengthened Maratha power under Shahu Maharaj.

Bajirao I:

• Expanded the Maratha empire to Malwa, Rajasthan, and Bundelkhand.
• Defeated the Nizam, consolidating Maratha dominance.

Balaji Bajirao (Nanasaheb):

• Faced defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat (1761), which lowered Maratha morale.

Madhavrao Peshwa:

• Re-established Maratha power in North India, overcoming the Panipat defeat.

Key Figures:

• Malharrao Holkar: Founded the Holkar State in Indore, strengthening Maratha influence in the north.
• Ahilyabai Holkar: Administered Indore efficiently, building temples, ghats, and dharamshalas.
• Raghuji Bhosale: Expanded Maratha dominance to Bengal.
• Mahadji Shinde: Re-established Maratha supremacy in North India, modernizing the army with French assistance.
• Nana Phadnavis: Managed state affairs post-Madhavrao, maintaining stability.

Decline:

• The untimely deaths of Narayanrao and Sawai Madhavrao weakened Maratha power.
• British interference in internal conflicts led to Peshwa Bajirao II’s defeat, establishing British dominance.

16.7 Art, Architecture, Literature

Art

Miniature Paintings:

• Found on pothis, pattachitra, and patrikas, illustrating texts like Bhagvat Gita, Dnyaneshwari, and Shivaleelamrut.
• Themes included Dashavatara, ragamalas, talamala, and royal processions.
• Used vibrant colors (red, green, yellow) and adorned wooden pothi stands.

Murals:

• Decorated wadas (Naik-Nimbalkar, Nana Phadnavis) and temples (Mayureshwar, Pandeshwar).
• Depicted Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas, and contemporary social life.

Performing Arts:

• Keertan, bhajans, powadas, and lavani were popular.
• Powadas by Adnyandas (Afzalkhan’s slaying) and Tulsidas (Sinhagad battle) inspired heroism.
• Shahirs like Anantafandi, Prabhakar, and Honaji Bala composed lavani.
• Dance forms: Lavani, Koli dance, Gaja Nrutya.

Architecture

Forts:

• Shivaji Maharaj built hill and sea forts (e.g., Sindhudurga) for defense.

Wadas:

• Constructed with stone (ground floor) and brick (upper storeys), featuring courtyards, wooden pillars, and motifs (parrot, peacock).
• Examples: Vishrambaug wada (Pune), Nana Phadnavis wada (Menavali).

Temples:

• Three types:
  1. Large, star-shaped temples (e.g., Vateshwar, Sangameshwar in Saswad).
  2. Stone temples similar to Malwa/Rajasthan styles (e.g., Kalaram, Sundarnarayan in Nashik).
  3. Independent style with arches and stucco sculptures (e.g., temples in Pune, Satara).
• Featured shikharas, sabhamandapas, and deepmalas (e.g., Jejuri’s stone deepmalas by Shahajiraje).

Civic Structures:

• Ghats built along rivers (Nashik, Wai, Menavali).
• Chhatris (samadhis) at various locations.

Urban Development:

• Cities like Pune, Satara, and Nashik grew with paved roads, wadas, and arched gates.

Literature

17th Century:

• Sant Tukaram: Poet of the Warkari sect.
• Samarth Ramdas: Wrote Dasbodh and Manache Shlok.
• Shivaji Maharaj: Compiled Rajyavyavaharakosha (Sanskrit lexicon for Persian terms).
• Sambhaji Maharaj: Wrote Budhabhushan (Sanskrit), Nayikabhed, Nakhshikh, and Satasattak (Brij).

18th Century:

• Yatharthdeepika by Vaman Pandit.
• Naladamayanti Swayamvara by Raghunath Pandit.
• Pandavapratapa, Harivijay, Ramavijay by Shridhar Pandit.
• Moropant’s Mahabharata translation.
• Bakhar literature: Sabhasad Bakhar, Bhausahebanchi Bakhar, Panipatchi Bakhar.
• Bhaktivijay by Mahipati.

16.8 Trade, Industries, and Social Life

Trade

Shivaji Maharaj’s Policies:

• Encouraged trade by establishing Peths (market places) managed by Shete and Mahajan.
• Protected local industries, e.g., imposed heavy duties on Portuguese salt imports to boost Konkan’s salt trade.

Ports and Trade Centers: Chaul, Rajapur, Dabhol, Kelshi, Ratnagiri.

• Exports: Black pepper, lac (Dabhol); silk, opium, indigo (Chaul); cardamom, cotton cloth (Rajapur).
• Foreign traders transported goods to the Red Sea and Iran.

Urbanization: Pune, Indapur, Saswad, Kolhapur, and Konkan ports flourished during the Peshwa period.

Industries

Key Industries: Textile, metallurgy, sugar.

Village Economy:

• Self-sufficient villages with 12 balutedars (e.g., goldsmiths, blacksmiths).
• Weekly markets (Kasba) facilitated trade in daily provisions.

Social Life

• Social Structure: Nobility (sardars), landlords (watandars), balutedars, and ryot (common subjects).
• Education: Traditional pathshalas in Wai, Nashik, Paithan.
• Festivals: Utsavas and vrata vaikalye celebrated enthusiastically, supported by the state to foster harmony.

Swarajya to Empire (Maratha Period)

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and write the complete sentences.

(1) _____ is known as the Father of Indian Navy.
(a) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
(b) Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj
(c) Chhatrapati Rajaram Maharaj
(d) Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj

Answer: (a) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

(2) The Pathans from Afghanistan had settled in ______ , the province at the foothills of the Himalayas.
(a) Varanasi (b) Mathura
(c) Ayodhya (d) Delhi

Answer: (c) Ayodhya

(3) Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj wrote the Sanskrit text _____ .
(a) Nayikabhed (b) Budhabhushan
(c) Nakhshikh (d) Satasattka

Answer: (b) Budhabhushan

(B) Find the incorrect pair from set B and write the correct ones.

Answer: (c) Kalaram Temple – Nashik

(C) Write the name.

(1) He was the Chief of the intelligence network of Shivaji Maharaj – Bahirji Naik

(2) He assisted in the provincial affairs – Deshmukh

(3) Leader of the Rohillas – Najib Khan

Q.2 Complete the following concept map.

Answer:

Q.3 Explain the statement with reasons.

(1) Shahajiraje is known as the visionary of Swarajya.

Answer: Shahajiraje is regarded as the visionary of Swarajya because he aspired to establish an independent Maratha state free from foreign rule. As a prominent sardar in the Nizamshahi and later Adilshahi courts, he gained administrative and military experience, which he used to nurture the idea of self-governance. He sent his son Shivaji Maharaj and wife Veermata Jijabai to Pune, entrusting them with his Jahagirs and the vision of Swarajya. His strategic foresight and ambition laid the groundwork for Shivaji Maharaj to establish and expand Swarajya, making Shahajiraje the visionary behind this movement.

(2) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj built the naval force.

Answer: Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj built a naval force to establish control over the sea and protect Swarajya’s trade and coastal regions. Recognizing the importance of maritime power, he sought to counter threats from foreign powers like the Portuguese and Siddis. He collaborated with Portuguese shipbuilders, Rui Leitao Viegas and Fernao Viegas, to construct warships and trained local fishermen to build a fleet. By 1675 C.E., his navy had 400 ships, enabling him to control coastal trade routes and conduct operations, such as the sack of Surat. His foresight in creating a navy earned him the title “Father of the Indian Navy.”

(3) Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj charged heavy duty on the salt imported from the Portuguese territory.

Answer: Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj imposed heavy duties on salt imported from Portuguese territory to protect and promote local industries in the Konkan region. The imported salt was undermining the local salt trade, which was vital for the economic well-being of Swarajya. By increasing the cost of imported salt through heavy duties, he discouraged its import, thereby boosting the sale of locally produced salt. This policy reflected his commitment to fostering economic self-sufficiency and safeguarding the livelihoods of local traders and producers.

Q.4 Write short notes.

(1) Maratha Art

Answer: Maratha art flourished during the Maratha period, particularly in miniature paintings, murals, and performing arts. Miniature paintings were created on manuscripts like pothis, pattachitra, and patrikas, illustrating texts such as Bhagvat Gita, Dnyaneshwari, and Shivaleelamrut. These paintings featured themes like Dashavatara, ragamalas, and royal processions, using vibrant colors like red, green, and yellow. Murals adorned wadas and temples, depicting mythological stories from Ramayana and Mahabharata, as well as contemporary social scenes. Performing arts, including keertan, bhajans, powadas, and lavani, were popular, with Shahirs like Adnyandas and Tulsidas composing ballads to inspire heroism. Dance forms like lavani and koli dance also thrived, reflecting the cultural richness of the period.

(2) Maratha Architecture

Answer: Maratha architecture was characterized by the construction of forts, wadas, temples, and civic structures. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj prioritized building hill and sea forts, such as Sindhudurga, to strengthen Swarajya’s defense. Wadas, like Vishrambaug and Nana Phadanavis wada, were built with stone and brick, featuring multiple courtyards, wooden pillars, and motifs like parrots and peacocks. During the Peshwa period, temple construction flourished, with examples like Kalaram and Sundarnarayan in Nashik, built in stone with intricate sculptures and star-shaped designs. Temples often included arches, sabhamandapas, and shikharas made of brick and stucco. Stone deepmalas, ghats, and chhatris were also notable, with extensive ghats built along rivers in Nashik, Wai, and Menavali, reflecting the architectural grandeur and urban development of the Maratha period.

India during Mughal period

Short Questions

1. Who established the Mughal rule in India?

Answer: Babur established the Mughal rule in India.

2. Which battle marked the beginning of Mughal rule in 1526 CE?

Answer: The Battle of Panipat marked the beginning of Mughal rule.

3. Who defeated Ibrahim Lodi?

Answer: Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi.

4. What was the capital city set up by Akbar?

Answer: Fatehpur Sikri was the capital city set up by Akbar.

5. Who resisted Akbar’s attack on Ahmednagar?

Answer: Chand Sultana (Chandbibi) resisted Akbar’s attack on Ahmednagar.

6. What was the name of Babur’s autobiography?

Answer: Baburnama was Babur’s autobiography.

7. Who wrote Akbarnama?

Answer: Abul Fazl wrote Akbarnama.

8. Which Mughal emperor banned art forms like music and painting?

Answer: Aurangzeb banned art forms like music and painting.

9. What is the Indo-Islamic style of architecture?

Answer: It is a blend of Persian and Indian architectural elements.

10. Which Mughal emperor built the Taj Mahal?

Answer: Shahjahan built the Taj Mahal.

11. What was the main port for Mughal foreign trade?

Answer: Surat was the main port for Mughal foreign trade.

12. Which industry flourished during the Mughal period?

Answer: The textile industry flourished during the Mughal period.

13. What was the purdah system during the Mughal period?

Answer: It was a practice of seclusion among elite Hindu and Muslim women.

14. Who was Tansen in Akbar’s court?

Answer: Tansen was a renowned singer in Akbar’s court.

Which Rajput leader resisted Akbar’s rule? Rana Pratap of Mewar resisted Akbar’s rule.

Long Questions

1. How did Babur establish Mughal rule in India?

Answer: Babur, a descendant of Genghis Khan and Taimurlang, defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Panipat in 1526 CE using superior artillery and tactics. He further consolidated his rule by defeating the Rajputs in the Battle of Khanwa. This marked the establishment of Mughal dominance in North India.

2. What were the key features of Akbar’s revenue reforms?

Answer: Akbar introduced a systematic land survey to classify land into fertile, infertile, irrigated, and dry categories, fixing taxes at one-third of the average yield. Taxes were collected in cash or kind, with documents like Kabulayat and Patta issued. Farmers received loans and concessions during calamities, ensuring fairness and stability.

3. Why was Akbar considered the greatest Mughal emperor?

Answer: Akbar expanded the Mughal Empire from Kabul to Bengal and Kashmir to Varhad-Khandesh through military and diplomatic strategies. His tolerant policies, including alliances with Rajputs and welfare-oriented reforms, strengthened Mughal rule. His patronage of art, literature, and inclusive administration solidified his legacy.

4. How did Mughal architecture evolve over time?

Answer: Mughal architecture began with Persian influences under Babur, seen in structures like the Kabulbag mosque. It evolved into the Indo-Islamic style under Akbar and Shahjahan, with red sandstone, marble, domes, and arches, as seen in the Taj Mahal and Fatehpur Sikri. The focus shifted from strength to aesthetics, declining after Shahjahan’s reign.

5. What role did trade play in the Mughal economy?

Answer: Trade flourished with new highways connecting Agra to Kabul and Bengal, and ports like Surat facilitating foreign trade. Exports like silk, cotton, and spices brought significant silver inflows, boosting the economy. European factories traded spices and cloth, making India a key global trade hub.

6. Why did Mughal art decline during Aurangzeb’s reign?

Answer: Aurangzeb’s strict religious policies led to the withdrawal of royal patronage for painting and music. Artists sought patronage in regions like Rajasthan, developing Rajasthani and Pahari styles. This lack of imperial support caused a significant decline in Mughal art traditions.

7. What were the contributions of Mughal literature?

Answer: Mughal literature thrived in Persian with works like Baburnama and Akbarnama, alongside translations of Sanskrit texts like Ramayana. Regional literature, including Tulsidas’ Ramacharitamanas and Kabir’s dohas, flourished. These works reflected the cultural and intellectual richness of the period.

8. How did the Mughal Empire interact with the Deccan?

Answer: Akbar annexed Ahmednagar, facing resistance from Chand Sultana, and divided it into three Subhas. Shahjahan saw the decline of Nizamshahi, while Aurangzeb uprooted Adilshahi and Qutubshahi. Maratha resistance in the Deccan challenged Mughal expansion, marking a turning point in their decline.

9. What was the social structure like during the Mughal period?

Answer: Most people lived in self-sufficient villages governed by the caste system, with no major social changes. The purdah system was prevalent among elite communities. Akbar’s educational reforms introduced subjects like philosophy and astronomy, enhancing learning in madarasas.

10. How did Shahjahan’s reign contribute to Mughal architecture?

Answer: Shahjahan’s reign was the golden age of Mughal architecture, marked by the construction of the Taj Mahal, Red Fort’s Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khaas, and Jama Masjid. His use of white marble, intricate designs, and symmetry set new standards. These structures remain iconic examples of Indo-Islamic aesthetics.

India during Mughal period

Introduction

The Mughal period (1526-1707 CE) marked a significant phase in Indian history, following the decline of the Delhi Sultanate. After Ibrahim Lodi’s defeat by Babur, the Mughal rule was established, dominating north and central India and parts of the Deccan. This era was prosperous, with advancements in art, literature, administration, trade, and foreign relations. The Mughal Empire saw its peak under emperors like Akbar, Jahangir, and Shahjahan, but declined after Aurangzeb, culminating in the end of Mughal rule post the 1857 Rebellion.

15.1 Mughal Rule in India

Political Context

• Decline of Delhi Sultanate: By the 16th century, the Sultanate weakened after Muhammad Tughluq, leading to the rise of independent kingdoms in North, Central, and South India.
• Fragmentation: The Bahamani kingdom split into five branches, and the Vijayanagar Empire was destroyed by five Islamic ruling houses. Portuguese settlements emerged on the western coast.
• Military Weaknesses: Indian rulers relied on traditional military systems, ill-equipped to counter modern weaponry, enabling Mughal dominance.

Origin of Mughals

• Etymology: The term “Mughal” derives from the Persian word for “Mongol.” Mughals were descendants of Genghis Khan and Taimurlang, originating from Central Asia.
• Babur’s Conquest: Born in Uzbekistan, Babur, king of Farghana, was inspired by Taimur’s invasions. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Panipat (1526 CE) using superior artillery, intelligence, and leadership, establishing Mughal rule in Delhi.

Key Mughal Rulers

Babur (1526-1530 CE):

• Defeated Rajputs led by Rana Sangha in the Battle of Khanwa.
• Laid the foundation of Mughal rule.

Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556 CE):

• Lost his kingdom to Shershah Sur but regained it after Shershah’s death.

Akbar (1556-1605 CE):

• Greatest Mughal emperor due to intelligence, tolerance, and courage.
• Expanded the empire from Kabul to Bengal and Kashmir to Varhad-Khandesh.
• Faced resistance from Rana Pratap of Mewar but adopted persuasive policies with Rajputs to strengthen rule.

Jahangir, Shahjahan, and Aurangzeb:

• Jahangir and Shahjahan maintained prosperity and cultural growth.
• Aurangzeb expanded into the Deccan but faced Maratha resistance and European interference, marking the beginning of Mughal decline.

End of Mughal Rule: Bahadur Shah’s rule ended after the 1857 Rebellion.

15.2 Reforms in Revenue System

Akbar built on Shershah Sur’s revenue system, introducing welfare-oriented reforms:

Land Survey: Conducted systematic surveys to classify cultivable land into:

• Fertile (supik)
• Infertile (napik)
• Irrigated (bagayat)
• Dry crop (jirayat)

Tax Assessment: Calculated the average annual yield over the past ten years, fixing one-third as the tax rate for a decade, ensuring stability for farmers.

Documentation: Issued Kabulayat and Patta to formalize tax agreements.

Payment Flexibility: Taxes were collected in cash or kind.

Farmer Support: Provided loans for cultivation (repayable in installments) and concessions during calamities like famines, floods, or epidemics.

Todarmal’s Contribution: His insights shaped Akbar’s welfare policies, bringing discipline to the revenue system.

15.3 Art, Architecture, Literature

Art

Painting:

• Originated from Persian styles, evolving into vibrant, realistic Mughal miniatures.
• Akbar encouraged painters, with works like Baburnama illustrations.
• Jahangir’s reign saw detailed depictions of court life, hunting, and nature.
• Declined under Aurangzeb due to his ban on arts, leading to Rajasthani and Pahari styles elsewhere.

Music:

• Flourished under Akbar with patronage to Persian, Kashmiri, and Turkish musicians, including Tansen.
• Hindustani music prospered, but Aurangzeb banned music, halting its growth.

Ivory Carving: Received royal patronage under Akbar and Jahangir.

Architecture

Evolution: Transitioned from Persian to Indo-Islamic style, blending Indian elements.

Key Features:

• Use of red sandstone and marble, large domes, arches, and ornamental designs.
• Focus on aesthetics during Mughal period, unlike the Sultanate’s emphasis on strength.

Notable Structures:

• Babur: Kabulbag mosque (Panipat), Jama Masjid (Sambhal).
• Shershah Sur: Purana Qila (Delhi), memorial at Sahastram (Indo-Islamic style).
• Akbar: Fatehpur Sikri (Jama Masjid, Buland Darwaza), forts at Agra, Lahore, Allahabad, and Attock.
• Shahjahan: Taj Mahal, Red Fort (Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khaas, Jama Masjid, Moti Masjid).

Gardens: Mughal emperors created lush gardens like Shalimar Baug (Lahore) and Nishat Garden (Kashmir).

Literature

Persian Literature:

• Babur’s Baburnama (autobiography).
• Mirza Hyder’s Tarikh-i-Rashidi (Humayun’s period).
• Akbar’s translations of Sanskrit texts (Ramayana, Mahabharata, Rajatarangini).
• Abul Fazl’s Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari.
• Dara Shukoh’s translations of Upanishads.
• Khafi Khan’s Tarikh-i-Khafikhan.

Regional Literature:

• Tulsidas’ Ramacharitamanas, Surdas’ compositions, Meerabai’s bhajans.
• Malik Muhammad Jaysi’s Padmavat, Kabir’s dohas.

15.4 Trade, Industries, Social Life

Trade

Internal Trade: New highways connected Agra to Kabul, Kandahar, Khambayat, Burhanpur, and Bengal, facilitating swift transportation.

Foreign Trade:

• Conducted via western ports (Khambayat, Bharuch, Surat, Dabhol, Calicut).
• Exported silk, carpets, indigo, leather, sugar, ginger, asafoetida, and precious stones.
• Imported gold, silver, horses, and China silk.
• European factories (Portuguese, Dutch, French, English) traded spices and cotton cloth.
• Surat was a key trade hub.

Economic Impact: India’s exports exceeded imports, attracting large silver inflows.

Industries

• Textiles: Indian cotton cloth was in high demand in Arabia, East Africa, Egypt, Myanmar, and Malacca. Dyes were made from indigo, turmeric, lac, and safflower.
• Metalwork: Weapons, farming equipment, copper, and brass vessels were produced.
• Paper Production: Bihar and Siyalkot were known for silk and white paper, respectively.
• Salt and Sugar: Key industries during the period.

Social Life

Village Life: Most people lived in self-sufficient villages managing law, order, and daily needs.

Caste System: Social organization remained unchanged, based on caste.

Purdah System: Prevalent among elite Hindu and Muslim communities.

Education:

• Continued Sultanate traditions until Akbar’s reforms.
• Akbar introduced subjects like Indian philosophy, agriculture, politics, and astronomy.
• Madarasas were established in Sambhal, Ahmedabad, Ahmednagar, Gulbarga, Burhanpur, Bijapur, Golconda, and Hyderabad, with libraries and dedicated staff.

15.5 Mughal Empire and Deccan

Early Period: Under Babur and Humayun, Mughal rule was confined to North India.

Deccan Powers: South of the Narmada, Khandesh, Nizamshahi (Ahmednagar), Adilshahi (Bijapur), and Qutubshahi (Golconda) were dominant.

Akbar’s Campaigns:

• Captured Ahmednagar fort (1595 CE), resisted by Chand Sultana (Chandbibi).
• After her death, Ahmednagar was annexed and divided into three Subhas: Ahmednagar, Varhad, and Khandesh.
• Prince Salim’s rebellion forced Akbar to abandon further southern campaigns.

Shahjahan’s Period: Nizamshahi declined, but Adilshahi and Qutubshahi survived.

Aurangzeb’s Reign: Successfully annexed Adilshahi and Qutubshahi but faced strong Maratha resistance, marking a turning point in Mughal decline.

Key Points for Revision

• Mughal Rule: Established by Babur, peaked under Akbar, declined after Aurangzeb.
• Revenue Reforms: Akbar’s systematic land surveys, fair taxation, and welfare policies.
• Art and Architecture: Indo-Islamic style, iconic structures like Taj Mahal, decline under Aurangzeb.
• Literature: Persian and regional works flourished, with translations under Akbar.
• Trade: Flourished via internal highways and western ports, with textiles as a major export.
• Social Life: Village-based, caste-driven, with educational reforms under Akbar.
• Deccan: Mughal expansion faced resistance from local powers and Marathas.

India during Mughal period – Solutions

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and write the complete sentences.

(1) Mughal Emperor Babur was born in ______ .
(a) Baluchistan (b) Kazakhstan
(c) Uzbekistan (d) Afghanistan

Answer: (c) Uzbekistan

(2) Mughal Emperor Humayun was defeated by ______.
(a) Ibrahim Lodi
(b) Shershah Sur (c) Babur
(d) Akbar

Answer: (b) Shershah Sur

(3) Akbarnama was written by ______ .
(a) Mohammad Qasim
(b) Abul Fazl (c) Mirza Hyder
(d) Badaun

Answer: (b) Abul Fazl

(B) Find the incorrect pair from set B and write the correct ones.

Answer: (1) Khafi Khan – Tarikh-i-Khafikhan

(C) Write the names.

(1) He defeated Ibrahim Lodi

Answer: Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi.

(2) She successfully resisted the attack of Akbar and saved the Nizamshahi kingdom

Answer: Chand Sultana (Chandbibi)

(C) Write the names.

(1) The Rajput rulers united against Babur.

Answer: After Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Panipat and established Mughal rule in Delhi, the Rajput kings, under the leadership of Mewar King Rana Sangha, united to counter his growing power. This was because they perceived Babur’s rule as a threat to their independence and regional authority. Their unity culminated in the Battle of Khanwa, where Babur defeated them, showcasing his military prowess and strategic skills.

(2) Shershah Sur was well-known for his ideal administration.

Answer: Shershah Sur implemented significant administrative reforms during his brief rule. He unified scattered Afghan sardars in North India and introduced a systematic revenue system based on land measurement. His policies included fair tax collection, infrastructure development like highways, and measures to ensure efficient governance. These reforms brought stability and prosperity, earning him a reputation for ideal administration.

(3) Emperor Akbar strengthened the foundation of his rule in India.

Answer: Akbar transformed the Mughal kingdom into a vast empire through his intelligence, tolerance, and strategic policies. He expanded his rule from Kabul to Bengal and Kashmir to Varhad-Khandesh. To strengthen his rule, he adopted non-offensive policies, such as alliances with Rajput rulers through persuasion and marriage alliances, and implemented welfare-oriented revenue reforms. His inclusive approach and administrative innovations solidified Mughal authority in India.

(4) Mughal art declined during the period of Aurangzeb.

Answer: Aurangzeb’s staunch religious policies led to the withdrawal of royal patronage for arts like painting and music, which had flourished under Akbar, Jahangir, and Shahjahan. His ban on art forms forced artists to seek patronage elsewhere, such as in Rajasthan and the Himalayan regions, leading to the emergence of Rajasthani and Pahari styles. The lack of imperial support caused a decline in Mughal art during his reign.

Q.3 Write short notes.

(1) Mughal Art

Answer: Mughal art flourished during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shahjahan, encompassing painting, architecture, and decorative arts. Mughal paintings, influenced by Persian styles, evolved into vibrant, realistic depictions of court life, hunting scenes, and nature, with miniature paintings in works like Baburnama. Architecture saw the development of the Indo-Islamic style, with iconic structures like the Taj Mahal, Buland Darwaza, and forts at Agra and Lahore, characterized by red stone, marble, domes, and arches. Ivory carving and garden design, such as Shalimar and Nishat gardens, also received royal patronage. However, art declined under Aurangzeb due to his restrictive policies.

(2) Mughal Literature

Answer: Mughal literature thrived in Persian, with significant contributions in historical, biographical, and poetic works. Babur’s autobiography, Baburnama, and Mirza Hyder’s Tarikh-i-Rashidi are notable texts. Akbar commissioned translations of Sanskrit works like Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Rajatarangini into Persian, with Abul Fazl authoring Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari. Dara Shukoh translated Upanishads into Persian. Local dialects also produced masterpieces like Tulsidas’ Ramacharitamanas, Surdas’ compositions, and Kabir’s dohas, reflecting the period’s literary diversity.

Q.4 Answer the following questions in detail.

(1) During the Mughal period what were the changes made in the revenue system?

Answer: Akbar introduced significant reforms to the revenue system, building on Shershah Sur’s framework. He implemented a systematic land survey to classify cultivable land into four types: fertile (supik), infertile (napik), irrigated (bagayat), and dry crop (jirayat). Individual land holdings were registered, and an average of the annual yield over the past ten years was calculated. One-third of this average was fixed as the tax rate, applicable for ten years, providing farmers with stability. Taxes were collected in cash or kind, and documents like Kabulayat and Patta were issued to formalize agreements. Farmers received loans for cultivation, repayable in installments, and concessions were granted during calamities like famines, floods, or epidemics. These welfare-oriented policies, guided by Todarmal’s insights, brought discipline and fairness to the Mughal revenue system, benefiting both the state and farmers.

(2) Elaborate the features of Mughal architecture.

Answer: Mughal architecture evolved from Persian influences into a distinctive Indo-Islamic style, blending strength, simplicity, and aesthetics. Early structures under Babur, like the Kabulbag mosque at Panipat and Jama Masjid at Sambhal, reflected Persian styles. Shershah Sur’s memorial at Sahastram and Purana Qila in Delhi marked the transition to Indo-Islamic architecture. Under Akbar, the city of Fatehpur Sikri was established, featuring landmarks like Buland Darwaza and Jama Masjid. He also built forts at Agra, Lahore, Allahabad, and Attock, using red stone and marble, with large domes and arches as prominent features. Shahjahan’s reign was the golden age of Mughal architecture, with masterpieces like the Taj Mahal, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khaas, Jama Masjid, and Moti Masjid in the Red Fort, showcasing intricate marble work and symmetry. Mughal emperors were also nature enthusiasts, creating expansive gardens like Shalimar Baug in Lahore and Nishat Garden in Kashmir. The use of red sandstone, white marble, large courtyards, and ornamental designs defined Mughal architecture, which began to decline after Shahjahan’s reign.

Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom

Short Questions

1. Who founded the Slave Dynasty in Delhi?

Answer: Qutubuddin Aibak founded the Slave Dynasty.

2. What was the primary occupation during the Sultanate period?

Answer: Agriculture was the primary occupation.

3. Which Sultan was the first to issue copper coins?

Answer: Muhammad-bin-Tughluq was the first to issue copper coins.

4. Who established the Vijayanagar Empire?

Answer: Harihara and Bukka established the Vijayanagar Empire.

5. What was the capital of the Bahamani Kingdom under Hasan Gangu?

Answer: Gulbarga was the capital of the Bahamani Kingdom.

6. Which pass was crucial for invasions into India?

Answer: The Khyber Pass was crucial for invasions.

7. Who was the first female Sultan of Delhi?

Answer: Razia Sultan was the first female Sultan.

8. What architectural style emerged during the Sultanate period?

Answer: Indo-Islamic architecture emerged during the Sultanate period.

9. Which Sultan built the city of Siri?

Answer: Alauddin Khalji built the city of Siri.

10. What new language emerged in South India during the Sultanate period?

Answer: Urdu emerged in South India.

11. Who defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain?

Answer: Muhammad Ghuri defeated Prithviraj Chauhan.

12. Which industry flourished in centers like Dhaka and Ahmedabad?

Answer: The textile dyeing industry flourished in these centers.

13. Who was the prominent poet in Balban’s court?

Answer: Amir Khusrow was the prominent poet in Balban’s court.

14. What was the standard unit for coin weight during the Sultanate period?

Answer: Tola was the standard unit for coin weight.

15. Which battle marked the end of the Vijayanagar Empire?

Answer: The Battle of Talikota marked the end of the Vijayanagar Empire.

Long Questions

1. Why did the Arab rule fail to expand in India?

Answer: After Muhammad bin Qasim’s conquest of Sindh and Multan in 712 C.E., Arab rule became unstable due to weak centralized control. The lack of sustained political and military support limited their expansion. Subsequent Turkish invasions overshadowed Arab efforts, establishing Islamic rule more effectively.

2. How did the lack of unity among Indian rulers contribute to Turkish success?

Answer: Indian rulers, such as the Chauhans, Pratiharas, and Chandellas, were divided and engaged in constant power struggles. This lack of unity and centralized authority prevented a collective resistance against Turkish invaders. The aggressive war strategies of the Turks further capitalized on this disunity, leading to their victories.

3. What were the reasons behind Alauddin Khalji’s invasions of Devgiri?

Answer: Alauddin Khalji invaded Devgiri in 1296 C.E. to amass wealth and in 1312 C.E. to subdue the Yadavas for stopping tribute payments. The need to fund his large standing army and offset financial strain from market reforms drove these campaigns. Political control over the South was also a key objective.

4. How did the textile industry flourish during the Sultanate period?

Answer: The textile industry thrived in centers like Delhi, Agra, and Banaras, with exports of cotton, muslin, and jari cloth to Iran and China. The growth of dyeing in places like Dhaka and weekly markets boosted internal trade. Amir Khusrow’s description of Dhaka’s fine muslin highlights the industry’s advanced craftsmanship.

5. What was the significance of the Khyber Pass in Indian history?

Answer: The Khyber Pass was a vital trade and invasion route connecting Afghanistan and Pakistan. Invaders like Mahmud Ghazni, Babur, and Alexander used it to enter India, impacting its history. The British later built a railway line to Jamrud, reinforcing its strategic importance.

6. How did Muhammad-bin-Tughluq’s policies lead to his failure?

Answer:  Muhammad-bin-Tughluq’s decision to shift the capital to Devgiri and back to Delhi caused logistical issues and unrest. His introduction of copper coins disrupted trade due to poor implementation. These missteps, ignoring ground realities, diminished his prestige and weakened the Sultanate.

7. What contributions did Mahmud Gawan make to the Bahamani Kingdom?

Answer: Mahmud Gawan, as Prime Minister, strengthened the Bahamani Kingdom by paying soldiers fixed salaries and fixing land revenue based on measurement. He established a Madarasa in Bidar, promoting education. His scholarly interest in mathematics and medicine set him apart.

8. How did Indo-Islamic architecture develop during the Sultanate period?

Answer: Indo-Islamic architecture, blending Iranian and Indian styles, began with Qutubuddin Aibak’s Quwwat-i-Islam mosque and Qutub Minar. Alauddin Khalji added structures like Alai Darwaza, while Firoz Shah Tughluq built simpler yet grand forts and canals. This style reflected cultural synthesis and royal patronage.

9. Why did the Vijayanagar Empire pose a challenge to the Delhi Sultanate?

Answer: Founded by Harihara and Bukka, the Vijayanagar Empire expanded significantly under Krishnadevaraya, covering vast southern territories. Its economic prosperity and military strength, as noted by travellers like Nicolo Conti, rivaled the Sultanate’s influence. This posed a political and cultural challenge to Delhi’s dominance.

10. What factors led to the decline of the Bahamani Kingdom?

Answer: After Mahmud Gawan’s death, internal factionalism weakened the Bahamani Kingdom’s unity. Conflicts with Vijayanagar drained its political strength, while provincial governors gained independence. This led to the kingdom’s division into five ruling houses, culminating in its disintegration.

Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom

Introduction

The transition from the ancient to the medieval period in India was marked by significant changes in political, social, economic, religious, and cultural spheres. This period saw the continuation of some ancient traditions alongside the emergence of new ones, with no clear demarcation between eras due to regional and temporal variations. The medieval period is roughly divided into Early, Medieval, and Modern periods, with the Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar, and Bahamani kingdoms playing pivotal roles in shaping medieval India.

14.1 Political Conditions in India

Overview: The medieval period saw the persistence of some ancient royal dynasties and the rise of new ones. Political instability, marked by constant power struggles, characterized North India after the decline of Harshavardhan’s empire.

Chola Empire: In South India, the Chola kingdom expanded into an empire under King Vijayalaya, who defeated rivals like the Pandyas and Pallavas, extending Chola boundaries.

North Indian Kingdoms: After Harshavardhan’s empire, numerous small kingdoms emerged, including:

• Chauhans of Rajasthan
• Pratiharas and Gadhwals (Rathod) of Kanauj
• Chandellas of Bundelkhand
• Parmars of Malwa
• Kalachuris of Gorakhpur and Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh)
• Chalukyas (Solanki) of Gujarat
• Palas of Bengal

Political Instability: These kingdoms were engaged in constant conflicts, lacking a centralized authority to unify them. This disunity made them vulnerable to external invasions.

Turkish Invasions: In the 13th century, Turkish invaders exploited India’s political fragmentation, easily defeating individual rulers who failed to unite against them.

14.2 Arab and Turkish Invasions

Arab Invasion:

• Muhammad bin Qasim: In 712 C.E., he led the Ummayad dynasty’s conquest of Sindh and Multan. However, Arab rule in India became unstable after his campaigns, limiting further expansion.

Turkish Invasions:

• Sultan Sabuktigin of Ghazni: In the 11th century, he attacked King Jaipal of Punjab, whose kingdom spanned from the Hindukush mountains to the river Chenab.
• Mahmud of Ghazni: Sabuktigin’s son, Mahmud, invaded India 17 times between 1001 and 1018 C.E., aiming to loot wealth and spread Islam. His invasions caused significant destruction and wealth extraction.
• Muhammad Ghuri: In the late 12th century, Ghuri’s invasions aimed not only to plunder but also to establish a Turkish empire in India. He defeated Prithviraj Chauhan in the Second Battle of Tarain, paving the way for Turkish dominance from Sindh to Bengal.

Reasons for Turkish Success:

• Internal dissent among Indian rulers.
• Lack of centralized power and unity.
• Absence of a standing army.
• Aggressive and cruel war strategies of the Turks.

Establishment of Delhi Sultanate:

• Muhammad Ghuri appointed Qutubuddin Aibak, his slave, to govern Delhi. After Ghuri’s death, Aibak became the first Sultan of Delhi, founding the Slave Dynasty.

Additional Information: Khyber Pass

• A critical route connecting Afghanistan and Pakistan, used for trade and invasions.
• Historical invaders like Darius, Alexander, Mahmud Ghazni, Babur, Nadir Shah, and Ahmed Shah Abdali entered India via this pass.
• In the 20th century, the British built a 52-km railway line to Jamrud, near Peshawar, with 34 tunnels and 92 bridges.

14.3 Alauddin Khalji and Yadavas of Devgiri

Slave Dynasty:

• Iltutmish: Succeeded Qutubuddin Aibak and trained his daughter Razia in state affairs.
• Razia Sultan: The first and only female Sultan of Delhi, she was a capable ruler who led military campaigns and focused on public welfare.
• Balban: An important Sultan who strengthened the Slave Dynasty.

Khalji Dynasty:

• Alauddin Khalji’s Invasion of Devgiri (1296 C.E.):
  • Context: Devgiri, a prosperous city in South India, was ruled by King Ramadevarai Yadava.
  • Invasion: Alauddin launched a sudden attack, forcing Ramadevarai to take shelter in the Devgiri fort (Daulatabad). Alauddin seized the fort, plundered the city, and caused a food shortage in the fort.
  • Outcome: Ramadevarai signed a treaty, ceding wealth and nearby provinces to Alauddin.
• Second Campaign (1312 C.E.):
  • Reason: Ramadevarai stopped paying tribute to Alauddin.
  • Action: Alauddin sent his commander, Malik Kafur, to subdue the Yadavas and collect tribute.
  • Purpose: To maintain control over the South, fund his large standing army, and offset the financial strain from economic reforms like market price controls.

Alauddin’s Innovations:

• Established the first large-scale permanent standing army.
• Introduced economic reforms to control market prices, which strained the treasury.

Tughluq Dynasty:

• Muhammad-bin-Tughluq: Known for controversial policies:
  • Shifted the capital from Delhi to Devgiri (Daulatabad) and back, causing unrest due to poor planning and logistical issues.
  • Introduced copper coins, a novel but poorly implemented policy that disrupted trade and reduced the Sultanate’s prestige.
• Taimur’s Invasion: The Mongol ruler Taimur invaded India during Naseeruddin Mahmood’s reign, ending the Tughluq dynasty by capturing Punjab and Delhi.

Later Dynasties:

• Sayyed and Lodi Dynasties: Followed the Tughluqs. Ibrahim Lodi, the last Sultan, was defeated by Babur in the First Battle of Panipat (1526 C.E.), marking the end of the Sultanate and the start of the Mughal period.

14.4 Trade and Commerce

Agriculture: The primary occupation, with agricultural revenue as the main income source.

Textile Industry:

• Flourished in centers like Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Multan, Banaras, Patna, Khambayat, Burhanpur, and Devgiri.
• Exported cotton cloth, muslin, linen, satin, and jari cloth from Bengal and Gujarat.
• Textile dyeing gained prominence in Golconda, Ahmedabad, and Dhaka.
• Amir Khusrow described Dhaka’s muslin as so fine that 100 yards could pass through a needle’s hole without being pierced by it.

Other Industries:

• Metal, sugar, and leather industries thrived.
• Paper manufacturing began, using rags and tree barks, in regions like Kashmir, Siyalkot, Delhi, Gaya, Bihar, Bengal, and Gujarat.

Trade Networks:

• Internal Trade: Weekly markets (Bazaar) and market places (Mandi/Mandai) facilitated trade, with new trade centers (Peth) emerging.
• External Trade: Goods like cotton cloth, muslin, dyed cloth, scented oils, indigo, sugar, cotton, and dry ginger were exported to Iran, Arabia, and China via land, river, and sea routes from ports like Delhi, Multan, Jaunpur, Banaras, Agra, and Patna.
• Imports included horses (Iraq, Turkey, Iran), semi-precious stones, mercury, lead, alum, saffron, and metals like gold and silver (Mecca, Aden).

Coinage System:

• Coins featured the names of the Khalifa and Sultan, with details like minting year and place in Arabic script.
• The ‘Tola’ became the standard unit for coin weight.
• Alauddin Khalji standardized prices for commodities, including grains, vegetables, fruits, slaves, and horses, to regulate markets during famines, often at the expense of farmers.

14.5 Urbanisation

Factors Driving Urbanisation:

• Political and economic development, influenced by rulers’ policies.
• Trade growth, as noted by Arab historian Ibn Khaldun, due to conducive governance.

Key Developments:

• Delhi emerged as the Sultanate’s capital by the late 13th century.
• Alauddin Khalji built the city of Siri.
• The Tughluq dynasty established Tughluqabad, Jahanpanha, and Firozabad.
• The Sayyed and Lodi dynasties made Agra their capital.

Impact:

• Increased trade, transport, and communication led to the growth of small and large cities.
• Cities served as administrative or industrial hubs, depending on their strategic importance.

14.6 Art, Architecture, Literature, and Social Life

Art and Music:

• Razia Sultan: Encouraged musicians and singers with awards.
• Balban: A musician himself, he blended Iranian and Indian music to create new ragas.
• Amir Khusrow and Amir Khas: Prominent poets and musicians in Balban’s court.
• Sufi Contribution: Sufi saints, like followers of Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti, popularized Qawwali as a vocal music form.
• Hussain Shah Sharukhi: Developed the Khayal style of vocal music.

Architecture:

• The Sultanate period introduced Indo-Islamic architecture, blending Iranian and Indian styles.
• Qutubuddin Aibak: Initiated this style with the Quwwat-i-Islam mosque and began constructing the Qutub Minar at Mehrauli, completed by Iltutmish.
• Alauddin Khalji: Built the Alai Darwaza and Jamalkhan mosque near Qutub Minar.
• Firoz Shah Tughluq: Constructed Fatehabad, Hisaf-i-Firuz, forts, bridges, dharamshalas, and canals, known for simple yet grand structures.

Literature:

• Sanskrit texts were translated into Persian and Arabic (e.g., Al-Beruni translated Sanskrit works into Arabic).
• Scholars from Syria, Arabia, and Iran visited India, contributing to literary activities.
• Notable historians included Hasan Nizami, Ziauddin Barani, and Afif Yahya.
• The Persian, Arabic, and Turkish languages led to the emergence of Urdu in South India.

Social Life:

• Muslim society included Turks, Ulemas, Mughals, Arabs, and Indian Muslims, with most Sultans being Turks or Pathans.
• A new class of Amirs and Umravs (nobility) emerged.
• Education expanded with the establishment of Maktabas (primary schools) and Madarasas.

14.7 Vijayanagar Empire

Foundation:

• Established in 1336 C.E. by Harihara and Bukka after Alauddin Khalji’s invasions weakened South Indian rulers.

Expansion:

• Under Krishnadevaraya, the empire expanded from South Konkan to Vishakhapatnam and from the Krishna River to Kanyakumari.
• Krishnadevaraya authored Amuktamalyada, a text on statecraft and policy.

Accounts:

• Travellers like Nicolo Conti (Italian) and Abdul Razzaq (Persian) provided detailed accounts of Vijayanagar’s prosperity and governance.

Significance:

• Posed a significant challenge to the Delhi Sultanate’s dominance in the South.

14.8 Bahamani Kingdom

Foundation:

• Established in 1347 C.E. by Hasan Gangu (titled Alauddin Bahamatshah) after a revolt against Muhammad-bin-Tughluq.
• Capital set at Gulbarga, Karnataka.

Expansion:

• Hasan Gangu focused on expanding the kingdom, capturing the fort of Daulatabad.

Mahmud Gawan’s Contributions:

• Strengthened the kingdom as Prime Minister by:
  • Paying soldiers fixed salaries instead of land grants (Jahagirs).
  • Fixing land revenue based on land measurement.
• A scholar of mathematics and medicine, he established a Madarasa at Bidar and maintained a large personal library.

Decline:

• After Gawan’s death, internal factionalism weakened the kingdom.
• Conflicts with Vijayanagar further strained its political strength.
• Provincial governors gained independence, leading to the kingdom’s division into five ruling houses:
  • Imadshahi of Varhad
  • Baridshahi of Bidar
  • Adilshahi of Bijapur
  • Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar
  • Qutubshahi of Golconda

Battle of Talikota (1565 C.E.):

• The five ruling houses united under Bahamani leadership to defeat the Vijayanagar emperor, ending the Vijayanagar Empire.

Delhi Sultanate, Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom

Q.1 (A) Choose the correct alternative and write the complete sentences.

(1) The royal poet in the court of Balban was _____ .
(a) Al-Beruni (b) Tuli
(c) Amir Khusrow
(d) Husen Shah Sharukhi

Answer: (c) Amir Khusrow

(2) The first ruler who built the buildings in Indo-Islamic style of architecture was ______ .

(a) Ferozshah Tughluq
(b) Qutubuddin Aibak
(c) Alauddin Khalji
(d) Akbar

Answer: (b) Qutubuddin Aibak

(B) Find the incorrect pair from set B and write the correct ones.

Answer: (d) Tripuri – Kalachuris

Q.2 Complete the following concept map.

Answer:

Q.3 Explain the statements with reasons.

(1) The Arab rule did not expand in India.

Answer: After Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh and Multan in 712 C.E., the Arab rule in India became unstable. The document states that following his conquest, the Arabs could not maintain a strong hold, and their rule grew weak. The subsequent establishment of Islamic rule in India was primarily by the Turks, who were more successful in their invasions and consolidation of power. The lack of centralized control and internal instability among the Arabs limited their ability to expand further into India.

(2) The Rajput rulers had to accept defeat in front of the Turkish invaders.

Answer: The Rajput rulers faced defeat due to several factors outlined in the document. There was internal dissent, lack of unity, and no centralized power among the Indian kingdoms. The absence of a standing army further weakened their resistance. Additionally, the Turkish invaders employed cruel and aggressive war strategies, which overwhelmed the individual efforts of rulers like Prithviraj Chauhan. Despite resistance, the lack of collective action, as seen after the Second Battle of Tarain, allowed the Turks to establish their empire from Sindh to Bengal.

Q.4 State your opinion.

The textile industry flourished during the Sultanate rule.

Answer: The textile industry indeed flourished during the Sultanate period, as evidenced by the document. Major centers like Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Multan, Banaras, Patna, Khambayat, Burhanpur, and Devgiri became hubs for textile production, with cotton cloth, muslin, linen, satin, and jari cloth being exported from regions like Bengal and Gujarat. The document highlights the finesse of craftsmanship, such as the muslin of Dhaka described by Amir Khusrow, which was so fine that it could pass through a needle’s hole. The growth of the textile dyeing industry in places like Golconda, Ahmedabad, and Dhaka, along with increased internal trade through weekly markets and new trade centers, further supported the industry’s prosperity. The export of textiles to countries like Iran, Arabia, and China indicates a robust demand and economic significance, confirming that the textile industry thrived under the Sultanate rule.

Q.5 Write short notes –

(1) Khyber Pass

Answer: The Khyber Pass is a historically significant route connecting Afghanistan and Pakistan, crucial for trade and invasions into India. The document notes its importance in ancient times for trade between India and Central Asia. Invaders like Persian Emperor Darius, Alexander, Mahmud Ghazni, Babur, Nadir Shah, and Ahmed Shah Abdali used this pass to enter India. During the 20th century, the British built a 52-kilometer railway line ending at Jamrud, near Peshawar, with 34 tunnels and 92 bridges, underscoring its strategic importance.

(2) Coins during Sultanate period

Answer: During the Sultanate period, the coinage system underwent significant changes. The document mentions that coins no longer bore images of deities; instead, they featured the names of the Khalifa and the Sultan, along with details like the year of issue and minting place in Arabic script. The ‘Tola’ became the standard unit for coin weight. Muhammad-bin-Tughluq was the first Sultan to issue copper coins, though his changes in the coinage system, coupled with poor implementation, led to economic unrest and a decline in the Sultanate’s prestige.

Q.6 Anwer the following question with the help of given points.

Write down the information about the invasion of Alauddin Khalji on Yadavas of Devgiri with the help of points given below.

(a) Reasons of invasion

Answer: Alauddin Khalji’s invasions on Devgiri were driven by political and economic motives. In 1296 C.E., he sought to amass wealth to strengthen his treasury. By 1312 C.E., the primary reason was to subdue the Yadavas, as King Ramadevarai had stopped paying tribute. The document also highlights Alauddin’s need to keep his newly expanded permanent standing army occupied and to offset the financial strain caused by his economic reforms, such as market price controls, which burdened the state treasury.

(b) Invasion and events

Answer: In 1296 C.E., Alauddin Khalji launched a sudden attack on Devgiri, a prosperous city ruled by King Ramadevarai Yadava. Ramadevarai took shelter in the Devgiri fort (Daulatabad), but Alauddin seized the fort and plundered the city. Due to an acute food shortage in the fort, Ramadevarai was forced to sign a treaty, surrendering wealth and nearby provinces. In 1312 C.E., when Ramadevarai ceased paying tribute, Alauddin sent his commander, Malik Kafur, to the South. Malik Kafur’s campaign successfully subdued the Yadavas and enforced the payment of tribute.

(c) Effects of invasion

Answer: The invasions significantly weakened the Yadavas of Devgiri, forcing them to cede wealth and territories, which bolstered Alauddin’s treasury and military power. The treaty of 1296 C.E. established Alauddin’s dominance over Devgiri and its neighboring regions. The 1312 C.E. campaign reinforced his authority, ensuring regular tribute payments. However, these invasions also drained the resources of South Indian rulers, contributing to the broader economic and political instability that paved the way for the rise of new kingdoms like Vijayanagar and Bahamani, as noted in the document.

India, Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia

Short Question

1. What is the ancient name of Sri Lanka’s first kingdom?

Answer: Tambapanni (Tamrapanni).

2. Who founded the first kingdom in Sri Lanka?

Answer: King Vijaya.

3. What are the three Vamsagranthas mentioned in the chapter?

Answer: Deepvamsa, Mahavamsa, and Chullavamsa.

4. Who initiated King Devanampiya Tissa into Buddhism?

Answer: Thera Mahinda.

5. What festival commemorates Theri Sanghamitta’s arrival in Sri Lanka?

Answer: Unduvapa Poya.

6. Which stupa in Anuradhapura is the earliest extant in Sri Lanka?

Answer: Thuparama.

7. Who wrote the Vishuddhimagga text in Sri Lanka?

Answer: Buddhaghosa.

8. What is the name of the tooth relic temple in Kandy?

Answer: Sri Dalad Maligava.

9. What is the ancient name of Cambodia?

Answer: Kambujadesha.

10. Which Chola emperor razed Anuradhapura in the 10th century C.E.?

Answer: Rajraja I.

11. What is the name of the famous stupa in Myanmar covered with gold sheets?

Answer: Shwedagon Pagoda.

12. Who founded the Pagan Empire in Myanmar?

Answer: Anawrahta.

13. What is the ancient Thai name for Thailand?

Answer: Mueng Thai.

14. Which kingdom in Vietnam was known for its Shaiva temples in My Son Valley?

Answer: Champa.

15. What is the name of the world-famous Vishnu temple in Cambodia?

Answer: Angkorwat.

Long Questions

1. How did Thera Mahinda and Theri Sanghamitta contribute to the spread of Buddhism in Sri Lanka?

Answer: Thera Mahinda, son of Emperor Ashoka, initiated King Devanampiya Tissa into Buddhism at Mihinthale, leading to widespread adoption among the king’s subjects. Theri Sanghamitta, his sister, established the first Bhikkhuni Sangha by initiating Anula, bringing a Bodhi tree branch to Sri Lanka. Their efforts solidified Buddhism’s foundation, celebrated annually during the Unduvapa Poya festival.

2. What is the significance of the Thuparama stupa in Anuradhapura?

Answer: Thuparama, built by King Devanampiya Tissa, is the earliest extant stupa in Sri Lanka, housing relics of Gautama Buddha. It symbolizes the early establishment of Buddhism in the region. Its historical and religious importance makes it a key cultural landmark.

3. Describe the role of King Parakramabahu in Sri Lankan history.

Answer: King Parakramabahu, a 12th-century ruler, reorganized disrupted Buddhist sanghas under Mahathera Kassap’s guidance, strengthening religious institutions. He defeated the Ruhuna kingdom, securing the tooth relic of Gautama Buddha. His reign marked significant political and cultural advancements in Sri Lanka.

4. What are the key features of the Galapotha inscription in Polannaruwa?

Answer: Galapotha is an 8.17m x 1.39m stone slab inscribed with the reign and achievements of King Nissanka Malla. It features a carved image of Gajalakshmi between swan borders, showcasing artistic excellence. The inscription is a unique historical record of Polannaruwa’s heritage.

5. How did Indian trade influence Southeast Asia in ancient times?

Answer: Indian merchants, using the Strait of Malacca, established trade routes from the 1st century B.C.E., transporting goods across the Malaya Peninsula. Accompanied by priests and monks, they spread Indian culture, religion, and art. This trade, peaking under Chola rule in the 10th century C.E., fostered cultural exchanges across Southeast Asia.

6. What is the historical importance of the Shwedagon Pagoda in Myanmar?

Answer: Built between the 6th and 10th centuries C.E., the Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon houses eight hairs of Gautama Buddha, gifted to merchants. Covered in gold sheets, it is a pinnacle of Myanmar’s stupa architecture. It remains a significant religious and cultural site, reflecting Indian Buddhist influence.

7. How did the Dvaravati kingdom contribute to Thai culture?

Answer: The Dvaravati kingdom (6th-11th centuries) introduced Indian traditions in sculpture, literature, and ethics, shaping Mon culture. Its Buddha images and temple architecture influenced regional art and religion. Despite its smaller size, Dvaravati significantly advanced writing, arts, and administration in Thailand.

8. What is the architectural significance of the Borobudur Stupa in Indonesia?

Answer: Built around 800 C.E. by the Shailendra kings, Borobudur Stupa reflects Buddhist philosophy through its Kamdhatu, Roopdhatu, and Aroopdhatu planes. Its platforms, adorned with Buddha images and latticed stupas, showcase intricate sculptural art. As a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site, it exemplifies Indian-influenced architecture.

9. Describe the cultural impact of the Ramayana in Thailand.

Answer: The Ramayana, adapted as Ramakien, profoundly influenced Thai art, including sculpture, dance, and theatre. Kings of the Ayuttha kingdom adopted the prefix ‘Ram,’ reflecting its popularity. Ramakien stories are preserved in Thai folk music and performing arts, showcasing Indian cultural integration.

10. What makes the Angkorwat Temple a significant cultural heritage site?

Answer: Built by Suryavarman II in the 11th century, Angkorwat is a 500-acre Vishnu temple with a 200-meter moat and intricate panels like Samudramanthan. Its Khmer architecture and later Buddhist conversion highlight cultural synthesis. As a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site, it represents Cambodia’s historical and artistic legacy.