Changing Times
10.1 Nomadic Tribes of Central Asia
- Post-Mauryan Context: After the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire, local rulers gained prominence, leading to the rise of regional kingdoms like the Shunga and Satavahana.
- Foreign Invasions: The period saw invasions by Indo-Greeks, Shakas, and Kushanas, marking a phase of political and social transition.
- Post-Alexander Scenario: After Alexander’s death, his appointed Satraps declared independence, becoming Indo-Greek kings.
- Nomadic Invasions: Nomadic tribes from Central Asia, such as the Pahalavas (Parthians) and Shakas (Scythians), attacked Bactria in the latter half of the 2nd century B.C.E.
- Yuezi Tribes: Pastoralist Yuezi tribes from China displaced the Shakas from Central Asia, leveraging their war skills to establish kingdoms in northwestern India.
- Impact: These migrations significantly influenced the political landscape of North India.
10.2 Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas
Indo-Greeks
Identity: Known as ‘Yavanas’ in Indian tradition, Indo-Greeks were Greek Satraps in northwest India, aiming to dominate the Mediterranean trade and West/Central Asian regions.
Key Figures:
- Seleucus Nicator: An Indo-Greek king from Bactria.
- Demetrius: Attacked India in 180 B.C.E., capturing Takshashila with his capital at Sakal (Siyalkot).
- Eucratides: Established an independent kingdom, leading to two Indo-Greek branches under Demetrius and Eucratides.
Legacy: Around 40 Indo-Greek kings ruled; their history is primarily known through coins featuring emblems, scripts, portraits, and deities, contributing to India’s numismatic tradition.
Reference: Extent of Indo-Greek kingdom: Indo-Greeks Map.
Shakas
Origin: Originating from Central Asia, Shakas displaced Bactrian Greeks, establishing ‘Shakasthan’ (Shistan).
First King: Maues (Moga), who conquered Gandhara and Punjab.
Decline: Weak successors were defeated by Pahalava king Gondophernes.
Cultural Significance:
- Rudradaman: A notable Shaka king whose Junagarh inscription (Sanskrit, below Ashokan Prakrit edict) records repairs to the Mauryan-era Sudarshan lake, victories in the Narmada valley, and campaigns against the Satavahanas and Yaudheya Republics.
- Shakas adopted Sanskrit, indicating cultural assimilation.
Administration: Modeled after Achaemenid and Seleucid systems, with Satrapies led by Mahakshatrapas and smaller units under Satrapas, who had autonomy to issue coins and inscriptions.
Cultural Traits: Nomadic pastoralists with no architectural remains but characteristic tombs containing chiefs, horses, and belongings. Their mounted archery skills, using saddles, reins, and composite bows, were highly effective.
Kushanas
- Origin: Yuezi tribes from Central Asia, who captured Indo-Greek kingdoms in Bactria and pushed Shakas south.
- Key Figure: Kujula Kadphises united Yuezi groups, declared himself king of Bactria, and extended rule to Kabul and Kashmir.
- Sources: Information from Chinese records, Greek/Roman literature, and Indian texts (Kushanas as ‘Tukhar’ or ‘Tushar’).
- Cultural Influence: Greek contact influenced Kushana culture, seen in their art and administration.
10.3 Kushana Empire
Expansion: Under Kanishka, the Kushana Empire spanned from Kabul to Pataliputra and Kashmir to Malwa, defeating Shaka kings.
Administration:
- Adopted Shaka’s Satrapy system, with military officers (Satrapas/Kshatrapas) governing provinces.
- The king, titled ‘Rajadhiraj’ or ‘Maharaj,’ was the supreme authority, introducing the concept of divine kingship (‘Devputra’ or Son of God) on coins.
Capitals: Kanishka established two capitals-Purushpur (Peshawar) and Mathura-for efficient administration.
Cultural Contributions:
- Kanishka organized the fourth Buddhist Council in Kundalvan, Kashmir.
- Adoption of Indian culture, evident in the name of the last king, Vasudeva.
Decline: After Vasudeva, the empire fragmented into independent Satrapies, lasting in Punjab and Gandhara until the 4th century C.E.
Reference: Kushana Empire map: Kushana Empire.
10.4 Gupta Empire
Foundation: Founded by Srigupta, a feudatory with the title ‘Maharaj.’ His son Ghatotkach also held this title.
Expansion:
- Chandragupta I: Transformed the Gupta state into an empire, adopting the title ‘Maharajadhiraj.’ His marriage to Kumaradevi of the Lichchhavi clan strengthened political ties. Ruled Magadha, Saket (Ayodhya), and Prayag.
- Samudragupta: Known for his ambition to unify India, earning the title ‘Sarvarajochchheta’ (annihilator of all kings). Conquered northern kingdoms, led southern expeditions up to Kanchi (except Vakatakas), and secured tribute from feudatories. Performed the Asvamedha sacrifice, proclaiming himself a Chakravarti king. His coins depict him playing the lyre (Veena), indicating patronage of art.
- Chandragupta II: Defeated Shakas, took the title ‘Vikramaditya,’ and extended rule to Malwa, Gujarat, Kathewar, and northwestern provinces. His marriage alliance with the Vakatakas (daughter Prabhavati to Rudrasena II) strengthened southern ties.
Decline: Kumaragupta resisted Huna invasions, but weaker successors led to the empire’s disintegration.
Administration:
- Decentralized, with the king assisted by princes, ministers (Amatya), and advisors.
- Provinces were subdivided into ‘Vishaya,’ managed by ‘Vishayapati.’ Provincial officers (‘Kumaramatya’) and district officials (‘Ayuktak’) ensured governance.
Economic Changes:
- Land grants to farmers and for religious/educational purposes (‘Agraharas’) were tax-free.
- Officers received land instead of salaries, laying the foundation for feudalism, which shifted power to local landlords and reduced royal revenue.
Society and Culture:
- Considered the Classical Age of Indian history.
- Agriculture included sugarcane, wheat (northwest), and rice (Magadha, east).
- Trade in minerals, animals, and herbs flourished, with goldsmiths enjoying high status.
- Gupta coins, especially gold, were renowned for their craftsmanship, depicting kings and deities.
- Trader organizations (‘Nigam,’ ‘Shreni,’ ‘Gana’) were prominent.
- Foreign communities were integrated, as seen in Smriti texts like Narada Smriti and Yajnavalakya Smriti.
- Textile industry thrived, producing Kshaum (linen), Chitrapatta (printed silk), Dukul (silk), Pulakbandh (colored cotton), Pushpapatta (floral designs), and Amshuka (muslin).
Art and Literature:
- Patronage of scholars like Kalidasa (Shakuntalam), Dhanvantari, Varahamihira, and others (‘Navratnas’).
- Sculptures at Sarnath, Devgadh, and Ajanta featured human figures and deities in stone, metal, and terracotta.
- Mathura style emphasized portrait sculpture; Gandhara and Varanasi styles also developed.
- Temple architecture emerged, using dressed stones (e.g., Sanchi, Bhumra, Deogadh).
- Advanced metallurgy, exemplified by the rust-free iron pillar at Mehrauli, Delhi.
10.5 Vardhan Empire
Context: Emerged during the Gupta decline, alongside dynasties like Maukharis and Maitrakas.
Foundation: Founded by Pushyabhuti at Sthaneshwar (Thanesar).
Key Ruler: Harshavardhan, whose empire extended from Nepal to Narmada and Saurashtra to Bengal. He took the title ‘Parambhattarak Maharajadhiraj.’
Sources: Harshacharita by Banabhatta and travel accounts of Chinese traveler Yuan Chwang.
Cultural Contributions:
- Nalanda and Vallabhi universities became global learning centers, attracting students from China, Tibet, Korea, Japan, and Sri Lanka.
Decline: After Harshavardhan, the lack of an heir led to the empire’s disintegration, with feudatories declaring independence.
10.6 Karkotaka Empire
Location: Ruled in Kashmir (7th-9th century C.E.).
Sources: Yuan Chwang’s accounts and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini.
Foundation: Founded by Durlabhavardhan, with an empire from Narmada to Tibet.
Key Ruler: Lalitaditya (Muktapeed, 724-760 C.E.), known for two victorious expeditions (Digvijaya).
- Defeated foreign tribes in the Amudarya basin (including Tukhar/Turks).
- Conquered regions from Avanti to Pragjyotishpur (Assam) and Tibet, with assistance from Yashovarma of Avanti.
- Extended influence to Kaveri and possibly Sri Lanka.
Cultural Contributions:
- Devotee of Vishnu, built the Martand temple.
- Established Lalitpur city and Buddhist Viharas at Hushkapur (Ushkur).
Significance: Lalitaditya’s empire was comparable to the Gupta Empire in extent and influence.
10.7 Trade, Coinage, Art, Iconography
Period Overview: From the 2nd century B.C.E. to the 4th century C.E., Central Asian tribes (Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas) introduced cultural traits that transformed Indian society.
Trade:
- Agriculture and animal husbandry were primary livelihoods, supplemented by industries and trade.
- Merchant and artisan guilds (Shrenis) facilitated trade.
- Sea trade expanded, with Indian goods (wool, silk, muslin, cotton, ivory, pearls, spices, sandalwood, medicinal herbs, diamonds, animals) exported to Rome via the Red Sea and Egypt.
- Imports included lead, copper, glass, silver, gold, and wines.
- Gold coins from Rome enriched India, contributing to prosperity.
Coinage:
- Bactrian coins resembled Greek coins, featuring symbols like the owl (Goddess Athena).
- Indo-Greek coins used Greek legends (obverse) and Prakrit in Kharoshthi script (reverse).
- Shaka coins adopted Kharoshthi script; Kushana coins featured Indian deities (e.g., Shiva) in gold and copper, found in India and Central Asia.
- Gupta coins, especially gold, were masterpieces, blending Greek, Roman, and Indian influences.
Art and Iconography:
- Gandhara Style: A fusion of Indian themes and Greek styles in Pushkalavati, Taxila, and Purushpur, driven by Mahayana Buddhism. Emphasized physical beauty in Buddha and Bodhisattva statues.
- Mathura Style: Focused on portrait sculpture, with Indian-style Buddha images and statues of Kushana kings (Vima Takshama, Kanishka). Introduced images of Saraswati, Vishnu, Surya, Shiva, and Kartikeya.
- Varanasi Style: Contributed to Indian sculptural traditions.
- Sculptures reflected societal values and innovations in Indian art.
10.8 Indo-Roman Trade (Trade Centres in Maharashtra)
Source: Periplus of Erythrean Sea (mid-1st century C.E.) details Red Sea trade routes, ports, and goods.
Commodities:
- Exports: Textiles, black pepper, precious stones, ivory, animals (monkeys, parrots, peacocks).
- Imports: Coral, wine, olive oil, garum (pickled fish), paid for in gold coins.
Archaeological Evidence: Roman pottery (amphorae), red ware, and coin replicas found at sites like Ter, Nevasa, Bhokardan, Kondapur, and Sannati.
Key Ports: Sopara and Kalyan in Maharashtra were major trade hubs.
Impact:
- Flourishing trade led to urban growth and prosperity.
- Buddhist centers emerged in South India (Dharnikot, Amaravati, Nagarjunikonda) due to increased trade.
Key Points for Revision
- Political Transformations: Rise of regional kingdoms post-Mauryan, followed by invasions and empires (Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas, Guptas, Vardhans, Karkotakas).
- Cultural Assimilation: Foreign tribes adopted Indian culture, seen in language (Sanskrit by Shakas), names (Vasudeva by Kushanas), and art (Gandhara style).
- Economic Changes: Shift to feudalism in the Gupta period, flourishing trade (Indo-Roman), and standardized coinage.
- Art and Architecture: Gupta period as the Classical Age, with advancements in sculpture, temple architecture, and metallurgy (iron pillar).
- Trade Hubs: Maharashtra’s ports (Sopara, Kalyan) played a pivotal role in Indo-Roman trade.
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