The world since 1945 – II
1. Phase 1959–1962: Shifts in the Cold War
Cold War Background: The Cold War was a period of tension between the United States (USA) and the Soviet Union (USSR) without direct fighting. It began after World War II (1945).
Camp David Summit (1959):
- A meeting between the USA and USSR leaders to improve relations.
- Aimed to reduce tensions but did not fully succeed.
Berlin Wall (1961):
- The USSR built a wall in Berlin, Germany, dividing East Berlin (Soviet-controlled) and West Berlin (Western-controlled).
- It stopped people from moving between the two sides, separating families and friends.
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962):
- The USSR placed nuclear missiles in Cuba, close to the USA, posing a direct threat.
- The USA responded with a naval blockade, preventing Soviet ships from reaching Cuba.
- This was the closest the Cold War came to a nuclear war.
- Outcome: The USSR removed the missiles, and both sides worked to reduce tensions.
What is a Naval Blockade?
- A naval blockade stops ships from entering or leaving a country’s ports using naval forces. The USA used this to block Soviet weapons from reaching Cuba.
2. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
What is NAM?
- A group of countries that chose not to align with either the USA or USSR during the Cold War.
- Focused on peace, independence, and development.
- Not passive; these countries actively participated in global affairs to promote peace.
First Summit (1961):
- Held in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, with 25 member countries.
- Today, NAM has 120 members.
Founding Leaders:
- Jawaharlal Nehru (India)
- Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt)
- Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)
- Sukarno (Indonesia)
- Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia)
Criteria for Non-Alignment (Belgrade, 1961):
- Follow an independent foreign policy based on coexistence.
- Support national independence movements.
- Avoid joining Cold War military alliances.
- Not part of bilateral military alliances or regional defense pacts tied to great powers.
- Not allow foreign military bases on their soil.
Goals of NAM:
- Promote peace and development.
- Fight for economic and political rights of developing countries.
- Address modern challenges like terrorism, human rights, and strengthening the United Nations.
What is the Third World?
- Refers to developing countries in Asia, Africa, and South America.
- Most were former colonies with low industrialization, low literacy, and high population.
- Many joined the Non-Aligned Movement.
3. Phase 1962–1972: Foundations of Détente
Impact of Cuban Missile Crisis:
Showed the danger of nuclear war, pushing the USA and USSR to reduce tensions.
Key Steps Toward Détente:
- Hotline (1963): A direct telephone link between USA and USSR leaders to communicate during crises.
- Nuclear Arms Agreements: Both countries signed deals to limit nuclear weapons.
Moscow Summit (1972):
- US President Richard Nixon and Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev met.
- Signed agreements to limit nuclear missiles.
- Marked the start of détente (reduction of tensions).
USA-China Relations:
- In 1972, Nixon visited China, recognizing its communist government for the first time since 1949.
- Improved USA-China relations, a major Cold War development.
4. Phase 1972–1979: Détente
What is Détente?
A process of reducing tensions between the USA and USSR, not full friendship.
Key Initiatives:
- Paris Conference (1973): Efforts to end the Vietnam War.
- Apollo-Soyuz Mission (1975): A joint USA-USSR space mission, symbolizing cooperation.
- Helsinki Conference (1975): 35 European nations, including the USA and USSR, worked to reduce tensions in Europe.
Camp David Accords (1978):
- US President Jimmy Carter, Egyptian President Anwar el-Sadat, and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin met.
- Aimed to reduce tensions between Israel and Arab countries.
Economic Developments:
Arab-Israel War (1973): Arab nations reduced oil production to pressure Israel, causing a global oil price hike through OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries).
New International Economic Order (NIEO):
- Proposed by non-aligned countries.
- Demanded that poor countries have a say in global economic decisions, which were dominated by rich countries.
North-South Divide:
- North: Rich countries (USA, Europe, USSR).
- South: Poor countries (Asia, Africa, South America).
- Highlighted economic inequalities.
Economic Cooperation:
Formation of trade blocs to promote free trade by removing barriers like tariffs (taxes on imports) and quotas.
Examples:
- ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations).
- European Union (EU).
- NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement: USA, Canada, Mexico).
- Regional organizations like SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation), OAS (Organization of American States), and AU (African Union) promoted economic and trade cooperation.
What is SAARC?
Established in 1985 to promote cooperation in South Asia.
Members: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka.
Goals:
- Improve quality of life.
- Promote economic growth and cultural development.
- Build mutual trust and cooperation.
5. Phase 1979–1985/86: New Cold War
End of Détente:
Two events in 1979 increased tensions, starting a “New Cold War.”
Iranian Revolution (1979):
- The Shah of Iran was overthrown, and Ayatollah Khomeini established an Islamic state.
- Iran cut ties with the USA and left the CENTO military alliance.
Afghanistan (1979):
Babrak Karmal became leader with Soviet support, making Afghanistan a socialist state aligned with the USSR.
Outcome: The USA and USSR returned to Cold War tensions.
6. Phase 1985–1991: The Gorbachev Era
Mikhail Gorbachev’s Reforms:
- Became Soviet leader in 1985 and introduced major changes.
- Perestroika: Restructuring the Soviet political and economic system.
- Introduced democratic practices like free elections.
- Ended the Communist Party’s monopoly.
- Decentralized the economy.
- Glasnost: Openness, allowing freedom of expression and criticism of the government.
New Foreign Policy:
- Opened dialogue with China.
- Focused on arms control and disarmament.
- Withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan.
- Improved relations with India.
Impact in Eastern Europe (1989):
- Gorbachev’s reforms inspired people in Eastern Europe to demand political freedom.
- Popular uprisings ended communist rule in countries like Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, East Germany, and Bulgaria.
- These countries became democratic.
Disintegration of the Soviet Union (1991):
- Gorbachev resigned on December 25, 1991.
- The Soviet Union officially ended on December 26, 1991.
- New countries emerged, including Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and others.
Other Changes:
- Germany: East and West Germany unified in 1990 to form one Germany.
- Czechoslovakia: Split into Czech Republic and Slovakia.
- Yugoslavia: Split into Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Slovenia, Kosovo, and Montenegro.
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS):
- Formed in 1991 after the Soviet Union’s collapse.
- Members: Former Soviet states like Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, etc.
- Purpose: Coordinate military, foreign policy, and economic cooperation.
7. Post-Cold War Era (After 1991)
End of the Cold War:
- The disintegration of the Soviet Union ended the Cold War.
- New terms: “Post-Soviet era” and “post-Cold War era.”
Rise of New Powers:
Countries like China, India, Brazil, and South Africa became important globally.
New Organizations:
- World Trade Organization (WTO): Promotes global trade.
- G20: Group of 20 major economies.
- BRICS: Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa.
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