Basic Concepts in Sociology
Introduction
- Sociology is a complex social science that studies all social phenomena, including society, community, family, interaction, conflict, culture, class, alienation, discrimination, structure, and functions.
- Sociological concepts are abstract and challenging to understand, requiring scientific thinking.
- This chapter introduces fundamental concepts: society, community, social group, social status, social role, and social norms.
3.1 Society
Definition and Origin:
- Derived from the Latin word socius (companionship or friendship).
- Aristotle stated, “Man is a social animal,” emphasizing that humans cannot live without society.
- Society is a collectivity created by humans to satisfy elemental (e.g., food, shelter) and derived needs (e.g., education, culture) through mutual behavior and relations.
Sociological Perspective:
- The term “society” is broader than an association, organization, or group (e.g., Arya Samaj, Co-operative Society).
- In sociology, society is defined as a system of social relationships with specific scientific meaning.
Key Definitions:
- MacIver and Page: “Society is a system of usages and procedures, of authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions of controls of human behavior and of liberties.”
- Oxford Dictionary: “The aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered community.”
- Morris Ginsberg: “A society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or mode of behavior which mark them off from others.”
Conditions for Social Relationships:
- Mutual Awareness: Individuals must be conscious of each other (e.g., two people running and noticing each other).
- Reciprocity: Interaction must occur, which can be positive (e.g., a greeting) or conflicting.
Characteristics of Society (MacIver):
- Likeness: Similarities in needs, values, and beliefs (e.g., shared language, belief in God) foster social relationships.
- Difference: Variations in sex, age, talent, and wealth are essential for a healthy society.
- Interdependence: Individuals and groups rely on each other (e.g., family interdependence).
- Cooperation: Essential process for society’s existence (direct or indirect, per Gisbert).
- Normative Nature: Social norms control behavior to protect society.
- Dynamic Nature: Society evolves, with old customs replaced by new ones.
3.2 Community
Definition: A group of people living in a definite territory, sharing common objectives, needs, and a sense of belonging.
Key Definitions:
- Bogardus E.S.: “A community is a social group with some degree of ‘we feeling’ and living in a given area.”
- Oxford Dictionary: “A group of people living in the same place or having a particular characteristic in common.”
- George Lundberg: “Community is a human population living within a limited geographical area and carrying on a common interdependent life.”
Elements of Community:
- Common Area: A specific geographical territory.
- Common Interests: Shared goals and needs.
- Common Interdependent Life: Mutual reliance among members.
- Sense of ‘We-Feeling’: Emotional attachment and solidarity.
Bases of Community (MacIver):
- Locality: The physical basis (e.g., a village or nomadic group with changing habitation).
- Community Sentiment: Awareness of sharing a way of life, fostering emotional bonds.
Significance: Living together provides protection, security, and fulfillment of common interests.
3.3 Social Group
Definition: A collection of individuals in social relationships, essential for human life as “man is a social animal.”
Key Definitions:
- Ogburn and Nimkoff: “Whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one another, they may be said to constitute a social group.”
- Oxford Dictionary: “A number of individuals associated or aggregated together to a greater or lesser degree, either because they share certain features or because they are bound together by patterns of interactions.”
- MacIver and Page: “By group we mean any collection of human beings who are brought into human relationships with one another.”
Characteristics of Social Group:
- Minimum of two persons (e.g., a married couple).
- Based on social interaction.
- Involves mutual awareness.
- Promotes ‘we-feeling’ and collective consciousness.
- Formed for common interests (e.g., political, religious groups).
- Has norms (written or unwritten) to regulate behavior.
- Dynamic, changing over time.
Types of Social Groups:
- In-Group and Out-Group (William Sumner):
- In-Group: “We” group (e.g., family, society) with a sense of belonging.
- Out-Group: “They” group (e.g., culturally different groups) with indifference or conflict.
- Voluntary and Involuntary Group (Charles Elwood):
- Voluntary: Choice-based (e.g., trade unions, clubs).
- Involuntary: Birth or compulsion-based (e.g., family, caste).
- Small and Large Group (George Simmel):
- Small: Dyad (two members, e.g., married couple) or triad (three members, e.g., family with a child).
- Large: Racial groups, nations.
- Primary and Secondary Group (Charles Horton Cooley):
- Primary Group: Small, intimate, face-to-face (e.g., family, friends).
- Secondary Group: Large, formal, impersonal (e.g., nation, trade union).
Reference Group (Robert Merton):
- Groups used for self-evaluation and behavior guidance.
- Types: Informal (e.g., family) and Formal (e.g., labor unions).
- Example: A married person comparing themselves to single friends.
3.4 Social Status, Social Role, Social Norms
Interrelation: Status, role, and norms are correlated; roles align with status, guided by norms.
3.4.1 Social Status
Definition: The position of a person in society, reflecting prestige and power.
Key Definitions:
- Ralph Linton: “Status is the place in a particular system which a certain individual occupies at a particular time.”
- Oxford Dictionary: “The official classification given to a person, determining their rights or responsibilities.”
- Talcott Parsons: “A status is the positional aspect of the role.”
Types (Ralph Linton):
- Ascribed Status: Assigned at birth (e.g., sex, caste).
- Achieved Status: Earned through effort (e.g., teacher, athlete).
Example: A person may be a parent (ascribed) and a bank manager (achieved).
3.4.2 Social Role
Definition: The behavioral aspect or duties associated with a status.
Key Definitions:
- Ralph Linton: “A role represents the dynamic aspect of position.”
- Ely Chinoy: “Role is the pattern of behavior expected or required of persons who occupy a particular status.”
Role-Related Concepts:
- Role Performance: How a role is actually played.
- Role Set: Multiple roles linked to a status (e.g., a professor’s teaching, research roles).
- Role Strain: Stress from role demands.
- Role Conflict: Incompatibility between roles (e.g., working mother).
- Role Exit: Disengagement from a role (e.g., retiring from a job).
3.4.3 Social Norms
Definition: Standards of group behavior ensuring social order.
Key Definitions:
- Sherif and Sherif: “Social norm is standardized generalizations concerning expected modes of behavior.”
- Harry Johnson: “A norm is an abstract pattern, held in the mind that sets certain limits for behaviors.”
Types (William Sumner):
- Folkways: Common practices (e.g., eating with hands).
- Mores: Morally significant norms (e.g., prohibiting premarital sex).
- Laws: Formal rules (e.g., The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955).
- Customary Law: Unwritten (e.g., tribal rules).
- Enacted Law: Written and obligatory.
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