Notes Class 12 Chapter 2 Geography Maharashtra Board

Population : Part – 2

Introduction

• Population as a Human Resource: Population is not just about numbers; it is a valuable resource because people’s physical and intellectual abilities drive a region’s development.
• Impact of Population: The way human resources are used affects the development of natural resources and economic activities. Poorly managed human resources can harm the use of other resources.
• Population Geography: This field studies population characteristics like:
• Population structure (age, sex, literacy, etc.)
• Sex ratio
• Literacy rate
• Occupational structure
• Rural-urban composition
• Migration

1. Population Composition

Population composition refers to the characteristics of a population, such as age, sex, literacy, and occupation.

1.1 Age Structure

• Definition: Age structure shows how many people belong to different age groups (e.g., infants, children, teenagers, young adults, adults, and elderly).
• Importance: The proportion of people in each age group affects a country’s development and economy.
• A large working-age population (15–59 years) means more workers and economic growth.
• A high number of children (0–15 years) or elderly (60+ years) increases the dependency ratio (people who rely on others for support).

Population Pyramids:

• These are graphs used to show the age and gender distribution of a population.
• Y-axis: Shows age groups.
• X-axis: Shows the number or percentage of people (males on the left, females on the right).
• Base: Represents children (younger population).
• Apex: Represents elderly (older population).

Types of Population Pyramids (Fig. 2.1)

Expansive Pyramid (A):

• Shape: Broad base, narrow apex.
• Features: High birth rate and high death rate, more young people, fewer elderly.
• Example: Developing countries with growing populations.

Constrictive Pyramid (B):

• Shape: Narrow base, broader apex.
• Features: Low birth rate, low death rate, more elderly, fewer young people.
• Example: Developed countries with aging populations.

Stationary Pyramid (C):

• Shape: Similar width for all age groups.
• Features: Very low birth and death rates, stable population with little growth.
• Example: Highly developed countries with balanced populations.

India’s Population Pyramid (Fig. 2.2, 2016)

Type: Expansive pyramid (broad base, high birth rate).

Age Structure:

• Large young population (0–15 years).
• Significant working-age population (15–59 years).
• Smaller elderly population (60+ years).
• Indicates a growing population with potential for economic growth if managed well.

1.2 Sex Composition

• Definition: Sex composition refers to the number of males and females in a population.
• Sex Ratio:

It is the ratio of females to males, calculated as:

• Global Average: 990 females per 1000 males.
• Highest Sex Ratio: Countries like Latvia, Estonia, Russia, Ukraine (e.g., 1162 females per 1000 males).
• Lowest Sex Ratio: Saudi Arabia (667 females per 1000 males).
• Asia: Generally low sex ratio (e.g., China, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan).
• India (Census 2011): 943 females per 1000 males.
• Importance: Sex ratio reflects the status of women in a country and affects social and economic development.

1.3 Demographic Dividend

Definition: Demographic dividend is the economic growth that occurs when a country’s working-age population grows larger than its dependent population (children and elderly).

How It Happens:

• Declining birth and death rates lead to fewer children and a larger working-age population.
• With fewer dependents, resources can be invested in education, health, and infrastructure, boosting the economy.

India’s Demographic Dividend (Table 2.1):

• 2001–10: Ratio of working to non-working population: 1.33:1, 57.1% working population.
• 2011–20: Ratio: 1.53:1, 60.5% working population.
• 2021–30 (projected): Ratio: 1.81:1, 64.4% working population.
• 2031–40 (projected): Ratio: 1.72:1, 63.2% working population.

Key Points:

• A higher working population increases economic productivity.
• If the ratio decreases, dependency rises, slowing economic growth.
• The dividend depends on government policies in education, health, and employment.

Benefits of Demographic Dividend

• Increased Savings: Fewer dependents allow people to save more, stimulating the economy.
• Better Education: Parents invest more in fewer children, building human capital.
• Women in Workforce: More women join the labor force, boosting economic growth.
• Higher Per Capita GDP: Lower dependency reduces economic burden.

1.4 Retirement Age Reforms (Table 2.2)

What It Shows: Many countries are increasing retirement ages due to aging populations and rising life expectancy.

Examples:

• Germany: Retirement age to 66 by 2023, 67 by 2029.
• USA: To 67 for those born in 1960 or later.
• UK: To 66 by 2020, 67 by 2026–28.
• Australia: To 67 by 2023.
• China: To 65 by 2045.
• Japan: Considering raising to 70.
• India: Average 60 years (varies 55–65 by service).

Reasons for Increasing Retirement Age:

• Longer life expectancy (e.g., Japan: 84 years).
• Pressure on pension funds and healthcare due to more elderly.
• Fewer young people to support the economy.

Impact on Economy:

• Keeps experienced workers in the workforce longer.
• Reduces pension costs.
• May create competition for younger workers seeking jobs.
• China’s Delay to 2045: China’s young population is still significant, but it will decline by 2045, necessitating a higher retirement age.
• India’s Context: With a young population, increasing retirement age may not be urgent, but rising life expectancy could require it in the future.

1.5 Literacy and Education

Definition: Literacy rate is the percentage of people who can read, write, and perform basic arithmetic with understanding.

India’s Definition: Population above 7 years who can read, write, and do arithmetic.

Minimum Age for Literacy Calculation:

• Brazil: 15 years.
• USA: 15 years.
• Germany: 15 years.

Importance:

• Indicates socio-economic development.
• Reflects standard of living, women’s status, education facilities, and government policies.
• Higher literacy leads to better economic development, and vice versa.

Global Literacy Rates (Fig. 2.3, 2016):

• Highest Literacy: Central Asia, Europe, North America (near 100%).
• Lowest Literacy: Sub-Saharan Africa (57–72%).
• Gender Gap: Males generally have higher literacy than females, except in regions with full literacy (e.g., Central Asia).
• Conclusion: Literacy varies across regions. Developed regions have higher rates, while developing regions, especially Sub-Saharan Africa, lag. Gender equality in literacy is better in developed regions.

1.6 Occupational Structure

Definition: The distribution of the working population (15–59 years) across primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary sectors.

Importance:

• Reflects a country’s economic development.
• Developed economies have more workers in secondary, tertiary, and quaternary sectors.
• Developing economies have more workers in primary sectors (e.g., agriculture).

India’s Occupational Structure (Table 2.3, 1901–2011):

Primary Sector (agriculture, fishing, mining):

• Highest: 72.7% in 1951.
• Declining trend: 48.96% by 2011.

Secondary Sector (manufacturing, construction):

Increasing trend: 12.5% in 1901 to 23.52% in 2011.

Tertiary Sector (trade, transport, services):

Increasing trend: 15.6% in 1901 to 27.52% in 2011.

Key Observations:

• Primary sector employment is decreasing as India industrializes.
• Secondary and tertiary sectors are growing, indicating economic development.
• Lowest occupation: Mining (0.1% in 1901).

1.7 Rural-Urban Composition

Definition: The division of population into rural (primary activities like farming) and urban (non-primary activities like industries, services).

Differences:

• Lifestyle: Rural areas focus on agriculture; urban areas focus on industries and services.
• Age-Sex Structure: Urban areas often have more working-age males, affecting sex ratio.
• Development: Urban areas are more developed with better infrastructure.
• Criteria: Varies by country, but generally based on occupation and residence.

2. Migration

Definition: The movement of people from one place to another, within a country or across borders, for short or long periods, voluntarily or involuntarily.

Types of Migration:

By Region:

• Internal Migration: Within a country (e.g., moving from a village to Mumbai).
• External Migration: To another country (e.g., moving to the USA for education).

By Duration:

• Short-Term/Seasonal: Temporary, e.g., sugarcane workers in Maharashtra.
• Long-Term: For an extended period, may return occasionally.
• Permanent: Never returning to the original place.

By Intention:

• Voluntary: By choice (e.g., for jobs, education).
• Involuntary: Forced (e.g., due to war, natural disasters).

Reasons for Migration

• Push Factors: Factors that force people to leave (e.g., unemployment, drought, war).
• Pull Factors: Factors that attract people (e.g., jobs, education, better living standards).

Examples:

• Physical: Natural disasters like earthquakes or floods.
• Economic: Job opportunities, better income.
• Social: Marriage, education, discrimination.
• Political: War, political instability.

Impact of Migration

On Donor Region (where people leave):

• Positive: Reduced pressure on resources.
• Negative: Loss of workforce, higher dependency ratio, underused facilities (e.g., Kerala’s high sex ratio due to male migration).

On Recipient Region (where people move):

• Positive: Economic growth, new ideas, technological development.
• Negative: Pressure on housing, water, transport; rise in slums, crime, and economic inequality.
• Example: Mumbai has a low sex ratio (832) due to male-dominated migration.

Table 2.4: Impact of Migration