Notes Class 12 Chapter 1 History Maharashtra Board

Renaissance in Europe and Development of Science

Introduction

The Mediaeval Period in Europe was ending, leading to advancements in various fields.
Europeans explored new lands and started religious reformation movements.
This period, called the Renaissance (meaning “rebirth”), laid the foundation for the Modern Period.
Renaissance revived ancient Greek and Roman traditions in art, architecture, and philosophy.
It also marked overall development in science, literature, and exploration, starting a new era.

1.1 European Crusades and Their Consequences

What Were the Crusades?

Wars fought by European Christians in the 11th century to recapture Jerusalem and Bethlehem, holy cities under Islamic rule.
Nine crusades were launched, starting in 1096 C.E..
Crusaders were defeated by Islamic forces, notably by Saladin in 1187 C.E., who recaptured Jerusalem.

Support for Crusades:

Common People: Inspired by religion; the Pope promised forgiveness of sins and entry to heaven.
Rulers and Traders: Roman emperors aimed to control Syria and Asia Minor; Italian merchants (Venice, Genova) wanted trade routes to Central Asia.

Causes of Failure:

Pope and European rulers had selfish motives.
Loss of faith among common people.
Conflicts between the Pope, European kings, and the German Emperor.
Lack of support from the Byzantine Emperor.

Consequences:

End of Feudalism: Weakened feudal structures in Europe.
Loss of Faith in Pope: People questioned the Church’s authority.
Trade Growth: Contact with Central Asia boosted trade, especially for Italian and German cities.
New Class: Rise of traders and merchants.
Warfare Changes: Expertise in building forts, bridges, and military strategies.
New Taxes: Kings collected taxes for royal treasuries.
Cultural Exchange: Europeans learned about new plants, fruits, textiles, spices, and Arabic words in alchemy, music, and commerce.

1.2 Renaissance Period in Europe

Timeline: Began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th–16th centuries.

Key Features:

Foundation for a culture based on rationalism and science.
Shift from God-centered to human-centered thinking, known as Humanism.
Encouraged exploration, poetry, drama, fiction, and scientific experiments.

Catholic Church:

Before Renaissance, it controlled religious and personal lives, exploited people with fees, and restricted free thinking.
Humanism challenged the Church’s authority, allowing resistance against its dominance.

Key Figures and Contributions:

Nicolaus Copernicus (1543 C.E.): Proposed the Sun as the center of the planetary system, not Earth.

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642 C.E.):

Known as the Father of Empirical Science.
Disproved Aristotle’s ideas (e.g., heavy objects fall faster) through experiments at the Tower of Pisa.
Improved the telescope, aiding astronomy and seafaring.
Discovered Jupiter’s satellites, moon’s surface features, and sunspots.
Johannes Gutenberg: Invented the printing press in 1440 C.E., spreading knowledge to common people.

Education:

Modern universities emerged in the 18th century, teaching Greek epics, drama, literature, arts, ethics, and history.
Encouraged free thinking and intellectual growth.

Arts:

Scientific observation influenced art, leading to detailed paintings of nature and human anatomy.
Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo created significant works.
Oil paints and boards revolutionized painting techniques.
Alchemy evolved into Chemistry, expanding knowledge of metals and elements.

1.3 Development of Science

17th Century Scientists:

Laid the foundations of modern science.
Focused on:
Proving scientific principles through empirical experiments.
Creating scientific formulas.
Developing new scientific terminology.

Scientific Institutions:

Organizations like Lincean Academy (Rome), Royal Society (London), and French Academy of Sciences published research journals.
Facilitated communication and idea exchange among scientists.

1.4 Scientific Inventions in Various Fields

Instruments:

Compass, telescope, thermometer, barometer, and microscope were invented.
Microscopes enabled observation of microorganisms.

Physics and Chemistry:

Robert Boyle: Discovered the inverse relationship between gas pressure and volume.
Research on gases like hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.
Studies on heat, sound, and electricity (e.g., Benjamin Franklin’s work on lightning).

Textile Industry:

John Kay (1738): Invented the flying shuttle, speeding up weaving.
James Hargreaves: Created the spinning jenny, enabling multiple spindles.
Richard Arkwright (1769): Developed a mechanized spinning frame.
Samuel Crompton (1779): Invented the spinning mule, increasing cloth production speed.
Edmund Cartwright (1785): Invented the power loom.
Cotton Gin (1793): Removed seeds from cotton fibers quickly.

Metallurgy:

Improved smelting techniques to produce pure iron.
Replaced wood with coal in furnaces, increasing iron production.
Steel production invented in 1865, transforming the iron industry.
Machines maintained furnace temperatures and aeration.

Machines:

James Watt: Invented the steam engine, initially used in mining, later in textiles.
Steam-powered machines for agriculture (ploughs, harvesters) and transport (steamboats, railways by George Stephenson).
Other machines: roller printing for fabric, shoe-making, and tailoring.

1.5 Geographic Discoveries and Explorers

Motivations:

Search for new trade routes after the Ottoman conquest of Istanbul (1453) closed eastern routes.
Desire for gold, spices, and new lands.

Key Explorers:

Henry the Navigator (Portugal): Encouraged expeditions, leading to the discovery of Madeira and Azores.
Bartholomew Dias: Reached the Cape of Good Hope, circumnavigating Africa.
Christopher Columbus: Sailed west to find India, discovered islands near America.
Amerigo Vespucci: Explored Venezuela and the Amazon delta; America named after him.
Vasco da Gama (1498): Reached Calicut, India, initiating European-Indian trade.
Ferdinand Magellan: Led the first circumnavigation of the Earth.
Samuel de Champlain: Established Quebec and French colonies in North America.
Abel Tasman: Discovered New Zealand and parts of Australia.
Captain James Cook: Surveyed Pacific islands, New Zealand, and Australia.
Louis Antony da Bougainvillea: Reached Tahiti, inspiring French colonization.
Mungo Park: Traced the Niger River in West Africa.

Impact:

European colonies expanded in Africa for resources (gold, diamonds, timber) and slave trade.
New lands brought wealth and cultural exchanges but led to exploitation.

1.6 Industrial Revolution

Definition: Shift from manual to mechanized production using steam and water-powered machines in the 18th–19th centuries.

Capitalistic Economy:

Emerged with a new class of capitalists (factory owners or investors).
Focused on low production costs, minimum wages, and maximum profits.
Allowed private ownership, price setting, and consumer choice.

Why England?:

Abundant iron ore and coal.
Damp climate suitable for cotton yarn production.
Colonies provided cheap raw materials and markets for goods.
Profits from colonies supplied capital.
Cheap labor reduced costs.

Impact on India:

Negative: Destroyed Indian cottage industries, especially textiles.
British policies favored European goods, exploiting Indian markets via railways.

1.7 Economic Nationalism

Definition: Promoting a nation’s economic growth while restricting rivals.

Features:

Imposing trade restrictions (e.g., heavy tolls, banning imports/exports).
Establishing colonies in Asia and Africa for resources and markets.
Fighting battles to secure colonies.