Notes Class 12 Chapter 1 History Maharashtra Board

Renaissance in Europe and Development of Science

Introduction

• The Mediaeval Period in Europe was ending, leading to advancements in various fields.
• Europeans explored new lands and started religious reformation movements.
• This period, called the Renaissance (meaning “rebirth”), laid the foundation for the Modern Period.
• Renaissance revived ancient Greek and Roman traditions in art, architecture, and philosophy.
• It also marked overall development in science, literature, and exploration, starting a new era.

1.1 European Crusades and Their Consequences

What Were the Crusades?

• Wars fought by European Christians in the 11th century to recapture Jerusalem and Bethlehem, holy cities under Islamic rule.
• Nine crusades were launched, starting in 1096 C.E..
• Crusaders were defeated by Islamic forces, notably by Saladin in 1187 C.E., who recaptured Jerusalem.

Support for Crusades:

• Common People: Inspired by religion; the Pope promised forgiveness of sins and entry to heaven.
• Rulers and Traders: Roman emperors aimed to control Syria and Asia Minor; Italian merchants (Venice, Genova) wanted trade routes to Central Asia.

Causes of Failure:

• Pope and European rulers had selfish motives.
• Loss of faith among common people.
• Conflicts between the Pope, European kings, and the German Emperor.
• Lack of support from the Byzantine Emperor.

Consequences:

• End of Feudalism: Weakened feudal structures in Europe.
• Loss of Faith in Pope: People questioned the Church’s authority.
• Trade Growth: Contact with Central Asia boosted trade, especially for Italian and German cities.
• New Class: Rise of traders and merchants.
• Warfare Changes: Expertise in building forts, bridges, and military strategies.
• New Taxes: Kings collected taxes for royal treasuries.
• Cultural Exchange: Europeans learned about new plants, fruits, textiles, spices, and Arabic words in alchemy, music, and commerce.

1.2 Renaissance Period in Europe

Timeline: Began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th–16th centuries.

Key Features:

• Foundation for a culture based on rationalism and science.
• Shift from God-centered to human-centered thinking, known as Humanism.
• Encouraged exploration, poetry, drama, fiction, and scientific experiments.

Catholic Church:

• Before Renaissance, it controlled religious and personal lives, exploited people with fees, and restricted free thinking.
• Humanism challenged the Church’s authority, allowing resistance against its dominance.

Key Figures and Contributions:

Nicolaus Copernicus (1543 C.E.): Proposed the Sun as the center of the planetary system, not Earth.

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642 C.E.):

• Known as the Father of Empirical Science.
• Disproved Aristotle’s ideas (e.g., heavy objects fall faster) through experiments at the Tower of Pisa.
• Improved the telescope, aiding astronomy and seafaring.
• Discovered Jupiter’s satellites, moon’s surface features, and sunspots.
• Johannes Gutenberg: Invented the printing press in 1440 C.E., spreading knowledge to common people.

Education:

• Modern universities emerged in the 18th century, teaching Greek epics, drama, literature, arts, ethics, and history.
• Encouraged free thinking and intellectual growth.

Arts:

• Scientific observation influenced art, leading to detailed paintings of nature and human anatomy.
• Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo created significant works.
• Oil paints and boards revolutionized painting techniques.
• Alchemy evolved into Chemistry, expanding knowledge of metals and elements.

1.3 Development of Science

17th Century Scientists:

• Laid the foundations of modern science.
• Focused on:
• Proving scientific principles through empirical experiments.
• Creating scientific formulas.
• Developing new scientific terminology.

Scientific Institutions:

• Organizations like Lincean Academy (Rome), Royal Society (London), and French Academy of Sciences published research journals.
• Facilitated communication and idea exchange among scientists.

1.4 Scientific Inventions in Various Fields

Instruments:

• Compass, telescope, thermometer, barometer, and microscope were invented.
• Microscopes enabled observation of microorganisms.

Physics and Chemistry:

• Robert Boyle: Discovered the inverse relationship between gas pressure and volume.
• Research on gases like hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.
• Studies on heat, sound, and electricity (e.g., Benjamin Franklin’s work on lightning).

Textile Industry:

• John Kay (1738): Invented the flying shuttle, speeding up weaving.
• James Hargreaves: Created the spinning jenny, enabling multiple spindles.
• Richard Arkwright (1769): Developed a mechanized spinning frame.
• Samuel Crompton (1779): Invented the spinning mule, increasing cloth production speed.
• Edmund Cartwright (1785): Invented the power loom.
• Cotton Gin (1793): Removed seeds from cotton fibers quickly.

Metallurgy:

• Improved smelting techniques to produce pure iron.
• Replaced wood with coal in furnaces, increasing iron production.
• Steel production invented in 1865, transforming the iron industry.
• Machines maintained furnace temperatures and aeration.

Machines:

• James Watt: Invented the steam engine, initially used in mining, later in textiles.
• Steam-powered machines for agriculture (ploughs, harvesters) and transport (steamboats, railways by George Stephenson).
• Other machines: roller printing for fabric, shoe-making, and tailoring.

1.5 Geographic Discoveries and Explorers

Motivations:

• Search for new trade routes after the Ottoman conquest of Istanbul (1453) closed eastern routes.
• Desire for gold, spices, and new lands.

Key Explorers:

• Henry the Navigator (Portugal): Encouraged expeditions, leading to the discovery of Madeira and Azores.
• Bartholomew Dias: Reached the Cape of Good Hope, circumnavigating Africa.
• Christopher Columbus: Sailed west to find India, discovered islands near America.
• Amerigo Vespucci: Explored Venezuela and the Amazon delta; America named after him.
• Vasco da Gama (1498): Reached Calicut, India, initiating European-Indian trade.
• Ferdinand Magellan: Led the first circumnavigation of the Earth.
• Samuel de Champlain: Established Quebec and French colonies in North America.
• Abel Tasman: Discovered New Zealand and parts of Australia.
• Captain James Cook: Surveyed Pacific islands, New Zealand, and Australia.
• Louis Antony da Bougainvillea: Reached Tahiti, inspiring French colonization.
• Mungo Park: Traced the Niger River in West Africa.

Impact:

• European colonies expanded in Africa for resources (gold, diamonds, timber) and slave trade.
• New lands brought wealth and cultural exchanges but led to exploitation.

1.6 Industrial Revolution

Definition: Shift from manual to mechanized production using steam and water-powered machines in the 18th–19th centuries.

Capitalistic Economy:

• Emerged with a new class of capitalists (factory owners or investors).
• Focused on low production costs, minimum wages, and maximum profits.
• Allowed private ownership, price setting, and consumer choice.

Why England?:

• Abundant iron ore and coal.
• Damp climate suitable for cotton yarn production.
• Colonies provided cheap raw materials and markets for goods.
• Profits from colonies supplied capital.
• Cheap labor reduced costs.

Impact on India:

• Negative: Destroyed Indian cottage industries, especially textiles.
• British policies favored European goods, exploiting Indian markets via railways.

1.7 Economic Nationalism

Definition: Promoting a nation’s economic growth while restricting rivals.

Features:

• Imposing trade restrictions (e.g., heavy tolls, banning imports/exports).
• Establishing colonies in Asia and Africa for resources and markets.
• Fighting battles to secure colonies.

Impact:

• Surplus production from the Industrial Revolution fueled economic nationalism and imperialism.
• Led to a cycle of capturing markets, securing raw materials, and attracting investors.
• Resulted in the exploitation of colonies and the expansion of European empires (England, France, Germany, Belgium).