Notes Class 12 Chapter 10 History Maharashtra Board

Cold War

10.1 Cold War: Definition

What is the Cold War?

A period of tension and rivalry between Capitalist nations (led by the USA) and Communist nations (led by Soviet Russia) after World War II.
No direct fighting occurred, but there was a constant threat of conflict, creating a sense of a possible Third World War.
Term coined by Walter Lippmann, an American political columnist.

Key Features of the Cold War:

No Direct War: Countries avoided direct military conflict.
Arms Race: Intense competition to build weapons, especially nuclear ones.
Aggressive Policies: Nations used political tactics to gain influence.
Lack of Trust: Mutual suspicion among nations.
Political & Economic Pressure: Countries pressured each other to follow their ideologies.
Ideological Conflict: Clash between Communism (government ownership) and Capitalism (private ownership).

Background:

After World War II, Europe was divided:
Eastern Europe: Under Soviet influence, adopted Communism.
Western Europe: Under American influence, adopted Capitalism and Democracy.
This division created a political tension called the Iron Curtain (term by Winston Churchill), separating Communist and Democratic nations.
The Cold War spread beyond Europe to Asia (e.g., Sino-Soviet Treaty, Korean Conflict).

Progression of Cold War:

Marshall Plan: USA provided financial aid to rebuild Western Europe.
Soviet Russia supported freedom movements in Asia and Africa.
Key events:
Berlin Wall (1961): Built by Soviet Russia to separate East and West Berlin, increasing tensions.
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba caused a major standoff with the USA.

Efforts to reduce tension:

Moscow-Washington Hotline: For instant communication.
Nuclear Missile Limits (1972): Agreement between USA and Soviet Russia to limit nuclear weapons.
Détente: A period of relaxed tensions, e.g., Paris Conference (1973), Helsinki Conference (1975).

Mikhail Gorbachev’s Era (1985 onwards):

Introduced Perestroika (restructuring) and Glasnost (openness) to reform Soviet Russia.
Democratized politics, gave more freedom to people, and decentralized the economy.
His policies led to the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of Soviet Russia (1991), creating 15 independent countries (e.g., Russia, Ukraine, Estonia).
Marked the rise of the Post-Cold War World with the USA as the sole superpower.

Aftermath:

The Cold War caused global fear due to nuclear threats, political misunderstandings, and neglect of basic issues like food and housing.
The Berlin Wall (called the “Wall of Shame”) was demolished in 1989-1990, reuniting Germany.

10.2 NATO, ANZUS, SEATO, CENTO, Warsaw Pact

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 1949):

Formed to protect 29 European countries from Soviet expansion.
Members: USA, UK, France, West Germany, Italy, Canada, etc.

Key Terms:

An attack on one member is an attack on all.
Maintain peace and resolve issues through discussions.
Headquarters: Paris (later moved to Brussels).
USA had significant influence.

ANZUS Treaty (1951):

Signed by Australia, New Zealand, and the USA for collective security in the Pacific region.
Aimed to protect against Communist China.
First time Commonwealth nations (Australia, New Zealand) made a pact with the USA independently, bypassing UK and France.

SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, 1954):

Members: USA, UK, France, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, Philippines.
Signed in Manila to stop Communism in Southeast Asia.

Flaws:

Only three Asian countries included; others were Western nations with little understanding of Asian issues.
No dedicated military force.
Dissolved in 1977 after Pakistan withdrew (1973) and France stopped funding (1975).

CENTO (Central Treaty Organization, 1955):

Earlier called Baghdad Pact; members: Turkey, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq (later withdrew), UK.
Aimed to counter Soviet influence in the Middle East.
USA provided economic and military aid but didn’t fully support members’ needs.
Became non-operational after Iran and Pakistan withdrew due to dissatisfaction.

Warsaw Pact (1955):

Soviet Russia’s response to NATO, uniting Communist countries (e.g., East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Romania).
Aimed to strengthen the Eastern Bloc against Western policies.
Albania withdrew in 1968.

Sino-Soviet Security Pact (1950):

Soviet Russia agreed to provide China with economic, industrial, and technological aid.

10.3 Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) & India’s Policy

What is NAM?

A group of nations that refused to join either the USA or Soviet Russia’s alliances during the Cold War.
Focused on peace, progress, and independence rather than war or poverty.
Founders: Jawaharlal Nehru (India), Sukarno (Indonesia), Nkrumah (Ghana), Nasser (Egypt), Tito (Yugoslavia).

Non-Aligned Nations:

Adopt independent foreign policies based on peaceful coexistence.
Support independence movements and avoid military alliances with superpowers.

Key NAM Conferences:

Belgrade (1961): First summit, 25 countries, demanded end to aggression in Asia, Africa, and South America.
Cairo (1964): Opposed military groups and foreign military bases.
Lusaka (1970): Focused on unity, disarmament, and ending colonialism.
Algiers (1973): Demanded a new economic system.
Colombo (1976): Aimed to reduce superpower influence.
New Delhi (1983): Supported Palestinian cause and Namibia’s independence; emphasized Freedom, Development, Disarmament, Peace (Indira Gandhi’s speech).
Harare (1986): Created Africa Fund to aid South Africa’s neighbors.
Jakarta (1992): Demanded better trade facilities and UN restructuring.

NAM Criteria (Belgrade, 1961):

Independent policy based on coexistence.
Support national independence movements.
Not part of Cold War military alliances or foreign military bases.

10.4 India’s Anti-Colonial Policy

India opposed imperialism even before independence.
Post-independence, adopted active non-alignment:
Stayed neutral but engaged in global peace efforts.
Respected sovereignty and opposed foreign interference.
Examples:
Delhi Conference (1949): Supported Indonesia’s independence from Dutch rule.
Africa: Demanded independence for African colonies, spoke against mistreatment of Africans in the UN, and supported their struggles (e.g., Gandhi’s satyagraha in Africa).
India’s historical ties with Africa (trade, migration, railway projects) strengthened its anti-colonial stance.

10.5 South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

Origin: Proposed by Zia-ur Rehman (Bangladesh President) for economic and social development in South Asia.
Established: 1985, Dhaka Summit.
Members: Bangladesh, India, Bhutan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Nepal (later Afghanistan joined).

Objectives (Dhaka, 1985):

Promote rapid development of member nations.
Oppose terrorism and drug smuggling.
Resolve issues and build trust.
Cooperate with regional and international organizations.
Work for collective well-being globally.

Structure:

Secretariat in Kathmandu.
Annual meetings; rotating Principal Secretary (3-year term).

Challenges:

Economic disparity, high defense spending, poor infrastructure, underdeveloped agriculture, rising terrorism, population growth, limited trade, diverse politics, and religious-lingual differences.

Achievements:

Agro-information center in Bangladesh (seeds, animal husbandry, fisheries).
Meteorological research center in Dhaka.
Orthopedic center in Kathmandu.
Efforts to promote tourism and reduce poverty with ESCAP.
SAFTA (2004) and SAPTA (1993): Promote free trade among members.
Documentation center in Delhi, HRD center in Islamabad, agreements on narcotics, postal services, and transportation.

10.6 Commonwealth

What is the Commonwealth?

A voluntary group of sovereign nations, formerly British colonies, now called the Commonwealth of Nations.
Head: British King/Queen; Secretariat: London.
Principle: Voluntary cooperation.

History:

Statute of Westminster (1931): Granted autonomy to colonies (e.g., Canada, Australia).
Post-World War II, Asian and African colonies gained independence, partly due to Commonwealth’s influence.
Helped reduce resentment in the UK about granting independence.

India and Commonwealth:

Joined in 1948 (Jaipur Congress Session, Nehru’s decision) as an equal sovereign state.
Reasons: UK supplied arms, offered trade benefits, and provided a platform to counter Pakistan’s propaganda.

Commonwealth Games:

Started as British Empire Games (1911, King George V’s coronation).
Renamed in 1950; modeled after Olympics.
1986 Games: Boycotted by 32 countries (including India, led by Rajiv Gandhi) to protest South Africa’s racist policies.
India has performed well in recent Commonwealth Games.