Indian Struggle against Colonialism
6.1 Struggles before 1857
British Control in Khandesh (1818):
- The British East India Company took over Khandesh.
- The Bhils (tribal group) in Satpuda, Satmala, and Ajintha revolted against British rule.
- Led by Godaji and Mahipa (nephews of Trimbakji Dengale, an advisor to Bajirao Peshwa II).
- Around 8,000 Bhils participated.
British response:
- Captain Briggs cut off supplies to the Bhils.
- Mount Stuart Elphinstone pacified them by offering jobs, pensions, and protection roles.
- Major Morin forced the Bhils to surrender.
- Revolts led by Hariya Bhil (1822) and others were crushed by Captain Robinson and Lieutenant Outram.
- Outram also won Bhil trust by living among them and offering amnesty, land grants, loans, and army jobs.
Revolt of the Paiks in Odisha (1803):
- Paiks were soldiers in Odisha who owned weapons and farmed land given by local kings.
- After the British took Odisha from the Bhosale of Nagpur, they seized Paik lands and imposed a salt tax, making salt unaffordable.
- This led to an armed revolt led by Bakshi Jagbandhu Bidyadhar.
Hansaji Naik in Nanded:
- Hansaji Naik refused to merge his territory with the Nizam’s dominion.
- He captured some of the Nizam’s forts.
- The British (Major Pitman, Captain Evans, Captain Taylor) and Nizam’s forces defeated him after a 25-day war.
Ramoshi Revolt in Satara:
- Led by Chitursingh, Santaji Naik, and Umaji Naik.
- They attacked moneylenders’ consignments and seized the government treasury at Bhamburde (now Shivajinagar, Pune) in 1824.
- The British offered a Rs. 5,000 reward for capturing Umaji Naik and his associates.
- They banned locals from helping the rebels and threatened land confiscation.
- Captain Davis chased Umaji but failed; Captain Mackintosh later captured him near Bhor.
- Umaji was sentenced to death and hanged in Pune.
- Umaji’s Charter:
- Urged killing Europeans, looting treasuries, and burning British bungalows.
- Promised rewards like money, land, and titles for those who fought the British.
- Ordered Indian soldiers to leave British service.
Other Revolts:
- Phondsavant Tandulwadikar revolted at Mahadevgadh (1828) but was quickly defeated.
- Sawantwadi aristocracy revolted but was crushed by British agent Spooner and Captain Outram.
- Gadkaris (fort keepers) in Kolhapur lost their salaries and authority under British rule, leading to a revolt at Samangadh.
- They briefly captured Panhala, Pavangadh, and Vishalgadh but were defeated by British forces from Madras.
6.2 Freedom Struggle of 1857
Causes:
Military Discontent:
Indian soldiers faced cuts in allowances, humiliation, forced sea travel, and biased promotions.
Political Reasons:
- Lord Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse annexed states like Satara, Nagpur, and Jhansi, angering rulers.
- Annexed states’ soldiers lost jobs, increasing pressure on farmland.
Economic Issues:
- New land revenue systems (Kayamdhara, Ryotwari, Mahalwari) ignored Indian traditions, forcing farmers to pay taxes in cash.
- Farmers faced poverty, sold land, and worked on British cash crop plantations (e.g., indigo) under harsh conditions.
Social and Religious Issues:
- British policies interfered with Indian customs and traditions.
- Rumors spread that new Enfield rifle cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat, offending Hindu and Muslim soldiers.
- Soldiers were forced to use these cartridges, leading to outrage.
Key Events:
Mangal Pandey (March 1857):
A soldier in Barakpur Cantonment, he attacked British officers and was hanged, sparking widespread anger.
Revolts Spread:
- Soldiers in Lucknow and Merath revolted, killing British officers and burning houses.
- On May 12, 1857, Indian soldiers captured Delhi and declared Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah as “Shahanshah-i Hindostan.”
Leaders:
Nanasaheb Peshwa (Kanpur), Rani Lakshmibai (Jhansi), Tatya Tope, Begum Hazrat Mahal, Maulavi Ahmadulla, Kunwar Singh (Bihar), and Bakht Khan.
Major Centers:
- Delhi, Kanpur, Lucknow, Jhansi, and West Bihar saw intense fighting.
- Revolts spread to Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, and Bangladesh.
British Response:
- Delhi was recaptured by Sir John Lawrence and Sikh platoons; Bahadur Shah was exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862.
- Kanpur was retaken by Sir Colin Campbell after defeating Tatya Tope.
- Lucknow was conquered by Colin Campbell with help from Nepal’s King Jang Bahadur.
- In Jhansi, Rani Lakshmibai and Tatya Tope fought bravely but were defeated by Sir Hugh Rose. Lakshmibai died in battle; Tatya Tope was betrayed and hanged in 1859.
- Colonel Neil used brutal tactics in Varanasi and Allahabad, massacring Indians.
- In Kolhapur, Ramji Shirsat and Chimasaheb led revolts, supported by locals in Belgaon and Dharwad.
- Bhils in Khandesh, led by Bheema Naik and Kajarsingh Naik, seized a treasury worth seven lakhs but were defeated at AmbAPani.
Impact:
- The revolt lasted over a year with around 100,000 soldiers but failed due to superior British forces.
- Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858) promised no discrimination, religious freedom, and respect for princely state agreements.
- The revolt fostered a sense of national unity and showed the need for new strategies against British rule.
- The British adopted a “divide and rule” policy to weaken Indian unity.
6.3 Background of Founding the Indian National Congress (INC)
Early Organizations:
- Land Holders Association (1837): Founded by Dwarkanath Tagore to protect landlords’ interests.
- British India Society (1839): Founded by William Adams in London to inform British citizens about India.
- Bengal British India Society: Founded by George Thompson.
- British Indian Association (1851): Merger of the above two, sent grievances to the British Parliament.
- Madras Native Association: Worked similarly in South India.
- East India Association (1866): Founded by Dadabhai Nowrojee and Vyomeshchandra Banerjee in London.
- India League (1875): Focused on Indian issues.
- Indian Association (1870s): Founded by Surendranath Banerjee to unite Indians for political goals; held a conference in Kolkata (1883).
- Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884): A nationalist organization in South India.
- Bombay Presidency Association (1885): Founded by Justice Kashinath Trimbak Telang and Pherozeshah Mehta.
Significance:
These organizations laid the groundwork for a national platform to address Indian grievances, leading to the INC’s formation.
6.4 Founding of the Indian National Congress (1885)
First Session:
- Held on December 28, 1885, at Gokuldas Tejapal Sanskrit College, Mumbai.
- Presided by Vyomeshchandra Banerjee; attended by 72 delegates.
- Key participants: Pherozeshah Mehta, Dadabhai Nowrojee, Rahimtulla Sayani, Kashinath Trimbak Telang, Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
- Allan Octavian Hume (British officer) played a key role in its founding.
Resolutions:
- Demanded a commission to investigate British administration.
- Sought elected representatives in legislative assemblies.
- Requested Indian inclusion in administrative services and civil service exams in India.
- Called for reduced military spending, more funds for education, and technical education.
Importance:
The INC was India’s first national organization, uniting people from diverse regions to demand political reforms.
6.5 Moderates and Extremists
Debate:
Moderates:
- Leaders: Pherozeshah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Gopal Ganesh Agarkar.
- Believed social reforms were essential before independence.
- Wanted to work with the British government through petitions and dialogue.
Extremists:
- Leaders: Lokmanya Tilak.
- Prioritized independence over social reforms, believing freedom would enable reforms.
- Opposed relying on British cooperation; favored direct action.
Key Events:
Sedition Law (Section 124A, 1870):
- Declared anti-British writings or actions as crimes.
- Lokmanya Tilak was the first editor tried under this law for his articles in Kesari (1897).
Vernacular Press Act (1878):
Targeted anti-British publications; 210 Marathi books, including Savarkar’s 1857 – The First War of Independence, were banned.
Surat Split (1907):
- Tensions peaked at the INC session in Surat.
- Moderates opposed “Swadeshi” and “Boycott” resolutions; Extremists supported them.
- The INC split into two groups.
British Repression:
- Lord Curzon’s partition of Bengal (1905) aimed to weaken the INC.
- Extremist leaders like Tilak (sent to Mandalay for 6 years), Bipinchandra Pal, and Lala Lajapatrai faced imprisonment or deportation.
Reconciliation (1914):
After Tilak’s return from Mandalay, Moderates and Extremists reunited at the Lucknow INC session.
6.6 Armed Revolutionaries in India
Objective:
To weaken British administration, remove fear of British rule, and inspire people to fight for freedom.
Key Figures and Organizations:
- Ram Singh Kuka: Planned a revolt in Punjab.
- Vasudev Balwant Phadke: Led an armed revolt in Maharashtra.
- Chapekar Brothers (Damodar and Balkrishna):
- Killed Commissioner Rand in Pune (1897) due to his harsh plague control measures.
Abhinav Bharat (Nasik, 1899):
- Founded by Ganesh and Vinayak Damodar Savarkar as Mitra Mela; renamed in 1904.
- Vinayak Savarkar sent revolutionary materials from England and wrote 1857 – The First War of Independence.
- Ganesh Savarkar was arrested; Anant Kanhere killed British collector Jackson in revenge and was executed.
- Vinayak Savarkar was sentenced to 50 years in Andaman for Jackson’s murder.
Anusheelan Samiti (Bengal):
- Led by Aurobindo and Barindra Kumar Ghosh.
- Made bombs in Maniktala; Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to kill magistrate Kingsford but killed two British women.
- Prafulla Chaki died by suicide; Khudiram Bose was hanged.
India House (London):
- Founded by Shyamji Krishna Verma; offered scholarships to Indian students.
- Madam Cama, a socialist, raised India’s independence issue at the World Socialist Conference (1907) and unfurled an Indian flag.
- Madanlal Dhingra killed Curzon Wyllie and was hanged.
Gadar Movement (America and Canada):
- Founded by Lala Hardayal, Bhai Paramanand, and Dr. Pandurang Khankhoje.
- Published the Gadar newspaper to promote patriotism.
- Vishnu Ganesh Pingale contributed significantly.
Hindustan Republic Association:
- Kakori Conspiracy (1925): Ramprasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla, Roshan Singh, and Rajendra Lahiri looted a train’s treasury at Kakori, Uttar Pradesh.
- All were captured and hanged.
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA, 1928):
- Founded by Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev in Delhi.
- Aimed to end British exploitation of farmers and laborers.
- Key actions:
- Bhagat Singh and Rajguru killed Saunders to avenge Lala Lajapatrai’s death.
- Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Datta bombed the Central Legislative Assembly (1929) to protest anti-civil rights bills and surrendered.
- Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev were hanged in 1931.
- Chandrashekhar Azad died fighting in Alfred Park, Allahabad.
Chittagong Armory Raid (Bengal):
- Led by Surya Sen, who attacked British armories.
- Surya Sen and colleagues were captured; some were hanged, others like Kalpana Dutt got life imprisonment.
- Preetilata Waddedar died by suicide to avoid capture.
- Schoolgirls Shanti Ghosh and Suniti Chaudhury shot magistrate Charles Buckland and were imprisoned for life.
- Beena Das tried to kill Bengal Governor Stanley Jackson and was jailed for nine years.
Communist Party:
- Inspired by Karl Marx, aimed to establish a proletariat rule.
- Leaders like Shripad Amrut Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, and Keshav Jogalekar were tried in the Merath and Kanpur cases.
Impact:
Revolutionaries inspired courage and sacrifice, contributing significantly to the independence movement.
6.7 Mahatma Gandhi: Non-Violent Resistance Movement
Background:
- After Lokmanya Tilak’s death (1920), Gandhi led the independence movement.
- He began in South Africa, opposing discriminatory laws against Indians and natives through non-violent means.
Key Movements:
Champaran Satyagraha (1917, Bihar):
- British planters forced farmers to grow indigo at low prices.
- Gandhi’s satyagraha ended this exploitation, banning forced indigo cultivation.
Rowlatt Act Protest (1919):
- The Rowlatt Act allowed arrests without warrants.
- Gandhi called for a nationwide hartal (strike) on April 6, 1919.
- In Punjab, the Jalianwala Bagh Massacre occurred on April 13, 1919, when General Dyer fired on a peaceful crowd in Amritsar, killing around 400 and injuring thousands.
- Rabindranath Tagore renounced his “Sir” title in protest.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920):
- Launched at the INC session in Nagpur.
- Involved boycotting British schools, courts, offices, and goods.
- Lawyers like Chittaranjan Das, Motilal Nehru, and Vallabhbhai Patel joined.
- Farmers, workers, and students participated; imported clothes were burnt.
- The charkha (spinning wheel) symbolized Swarajya; Swadeshi became popular.
- In 1921, 396 public strikes occurred.
Dandi Salt March (1930):
- Gandhi protested the heavy salt tax.
- He marched from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi (March 12–April 6, 1930) and broke the salt law by collecting salt, sparking nationwide protests.
Impact:
Gandhi’s non-violent methods united millions and pressured the British to negotiate.
6.8 Azad Hind Sena
Context:
- During World War II (1939), Britain involved India without consent, angering the INC and Gandhi.
- Japan, allied with Germany, captured British territories in Southeast Asia, including Indian soldiers.
Formation:
- Rasbihari Bose formed the Azad Hind Sena with captured Indian soldiers.
- Subhash Chandra Bose reorganized it and established the Azad Hind Sarkar in Singapore (1943).
Key Actions:
- Conquered Andaman and Nicobar (1943).
- Captured Arakan province and Assam’s border outposts (1944).
- Failed to capture Imphal due to harsh conditions.
- Bose’s slogan, “Give me your blood! I shall give you independence!” inspired millions.
Impact:
The Azad Hind Sena challenged British military control and boosted Indian morale.
6.9 Quit India Movement (1942)
Background:
- The INC passed a resolution in Wardha to demand British withdrawal.
- On August 7–8, 1942, the INC session in Mumbai (Gowalia Tank Ground), presided by Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, approved the “Quit India” resolution.
- Gandhi called for non-violent resistance with the mantra “Do or Die.”
Key Events:
- On August 9, 1942, leaders like Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, and Azad were arrested.
- The British banned protests, rallies, and sealed INC offices.
- Young socialist leaders like Jayprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia, Aruna Asaf Ali, and S.M. Joshi led the movement.
- Revolutionary groups like Azad Dasta (Karjat) and Lal Sena (Nagpur) challenged British rule.
- Azad Radio, run by Vitthal Javheri and Usha Mehta in Mumbai, broadcast anti-British messages.
- In Midnapur (Bengal), Balia (U.P.), and Bhagalpur (Bihar), people ousted British officials and took over governance.
- Krantisinha Nana Patil’s Prati Sarkar (parallel government) in Satara managed revenue, law, and order.
Impact:
- The movement showed strong public opposition, weakening British rule.
- The 1946 Royal Indian Navy rebellion further destabilized British control.
- The British realized they could no longer rule India, leading to independence talks.
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