Notes For All Chapters – Political Science Class 12
Key Concepts and Issues since 1991: Humanitarian Issues
1. Introduction
Since 1991, the world has changed due to globalization.
New ideas like human rights, participatory government, and the role of non-state actors (NGOs, etc.) became important.
This chapter focuses on humanitarian issues: Environment, Poverty, and Gender.
2. Environment and Sustainability
What is Environment?
Everything around us: air, water, plants, animals, soil, rocks, etc.
Two types:
Natural Environment: Things that exist naturally (forests, rivers).
Built Environment: Areas changed by humans (cities, farms).
Global Action on Environment
1972: First international meeting in Stockholm on environment protection.
1983: UN created Brundtland Commission – introduced sustainable development.
1992: Rio Earth Summit – supported cooperation between developed and developing countries.
2002: Earth Summit in Johannesburg – focused on sustainable development.
2012: Rio+20 Earth Summit – reviewed progress.
What is Sustainable Development?
- Using natural resources without harming future generations.
- Focus on clean energy, reducing pollution, and protecting nature.
Major Environmental Problems
Climate Change: Caused by greenhouse gases; leads to floods, droughts, wildfires.
Pollution: Air pollution harms health and the planet.
Deforestation: Cutting trees increases CO₂ and harms animals/humans.
Water Scarcity: Less clean water due to population growth and climate change.
Loss of Biodiversity: Losing plants and animals affects food and health.
3. What is Poverty?
- Lack of basic needs – food, clean water, clothes, shelter.
- Two views:
- Traditional: Focus only on income and material needs.
- Non-traditional: Includes well-being, education, social rights, participation in decision-making.
What is Development?
- Improving people’s life through education, jobs, health, equality.
- Two approaches:
- Socialist: Government leads development.
- Capitalist: Private companies lead development.
- Now: Focus on equality, empowerment, sustainability, and participation.
India’s Development Journey
- 1950s-60s: Focus on industry and self-reliance.
- 1960s-70s: Green Revolution increased food production.
- 1980s: Economic crisis due to inefficiency in public sector.
- 1991 Onwards: Economic liberalisation, privatisation, and reforms began.
India’s Programs to Reduce Poverty
- MGNREGA: 100 days of work for rural families.
- PM Gramin Awaas Yojana: Housing for poor.
- IRDP: Support for self-employment.
- Saansad Adarsh Gram Yojana: MPs develop villages.
- PM Kaushal Vikas Yojana: Skill training for youth.
4. Gender Issues
- Why are Gender Issues Important?Women often face more poverty due to traditions and inequality.
- Feminist movements raised voices for women’s rights since the 19th century.
- Empowerment means giving power to women to live with dignity and independence.
What is Gender?
- Gender means social roles and expectations from men and women.
- Gender issues focus on equality, rights, roles, and fair treatment.
Problems Faced by Women
- Economic Inequality: Less pay and job opportunities than men.
- Trafficking: Many women are forced into marriage or work.
- Low Literacy: Fewer women are educated than men.
- Political Representation: Very few women are in Parliament.
India’s Steps for Women Empowerment
- Constitution: Gives equal rights to women.
- National Commission for Women (1990): Protects women’s rights.
- Reservation in Local Government (1993): More women in decision-making.
- Important Laws:
- Domestic Violence Act (2005)
- Workplace Harassment Act (2013)
- Triple Talaq Act (2019)
Government Ministries and Policies
- Ministry of Women and Child Development (since 2006) works for gender equality.
- National Policy for Women (2016): Focus on safety, education, health, and equal participation.
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