Notes Class 12 Chapter 1 Sociology Maharashtra Board

Introduction to Indian Society

Introduction

Sociology focuses on understanding the ‘what’, ‘how’, and ‘why’ of human social behavior, examining factors, conditions, and forces that shape behavior historically and presently. Social relationships influence thinking, actions, preferences, beliefs, and rituals. For instance, practices like morning baths before prayers or beliefs in gender superiority are often perpetuated through socialization. Indian civilization, spanning thousands of years, provides insights into social life through artifacts, travelogues, memoirs, literature, edicts, and modern techniques like dating material remnants. This unit is divided into three sub-units:

1. Ancient and Medieval India
2. Colonial Period
3. Post-Independent India

These sections explore religious beliefs, women’s status, education, social life, and urbanization, encouraging critical reflection on India’s pluralistic heritage.

1.1 Ancient and Medieval India

Timeline

• Harappan Civilization (2600 BCE – 1500 BCE): Early urban society with advanced planning.
• Vedic India (1500 BCE – 500 BCE): Early and Later Vedic periods with evolving social structures.
• Second Urbanization (500 BCE – 200 BCE): Rise of Mahajanapadas and town life.
• Classical Period (200 BCE – 650 CE): Gupta Empire’s golden age.
• Medieval Period (650 CE – 1500 CE): Influence of external religions and empires.

Key Themes

(i) Religious Beliefs and Practices

• Harappan Civilization: Worship of male gods, mother goddesses, and animals; no temples or idol worship; veneration of natural elements.
• Vedic Period (1500 BCE – 500 BCE):
  • Early Vedic (1500 BCE – 1000 BCE): Less rigid occupational divisions; worship of deities like Indra, Agni, and Surya.
  • Later Vedic (1000 BCE – 500 BCE): Rigid varna system (jati) based on purity and pollution; Brahmin supremacy, endogamy, and ritualism.
  • Hinduism: Based on Vedas, Puranas, and Dharmashastras; Law of Karma and cyclical worldview; four aims (Purusharthas): Dharma (duty), Artha (wealth), Kama (pleasure), Moksha (salvation).
• Jainism:
  • Ancient origins; 24 Tirthankaras, with Vardhaman Mahavir as the last.
  • Emphasizes ahimsa (non-violence) and tapas (penance); no concept of God; uses Ardhamagadhi.
  • Sects: Digambara (sky-clad) and Shvetambara (white-clad).
• Buddhism:
  • Founded by Gautama Buddha; advocates the middle path via Four Noble Truths and Eight-fold Path.
  • Non-theistic; uses Pali; emphasizes monasticism and moral virtues like charity and non-injury.
  • Sects: Hinayana, Mahayana, and later Vajrayana.
  • Spread by Emperor Ashoka to Tibet, China, Japan, etc.
• Medieval Period (650 CE – 1500 CE):
  • Arrival of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Zoroastrianism.
  • Zoroastrianism: Dualistic cosmology; worship of Ahura Mazda; fire temples; endogamy; notable Parsis like Dadabhai Naoroji.
  • Judaism: Early trade-related arrivals; Kochi and Bene Israel Jews; monotheistic; follows Torah.
  • Christianity: Introduced by St. Thomas (1st century CE); Syrian Christians; monotheistic; emphasizes love and resurrection.
  • Islam: Arrived in 8th century CE; monotheistic; follows Quran; spread during Delhi Sultanate (1206 CE – 1526 CE).
  • Sikhism: Founded by Guru Nanak (15th century); rejects caste; follows Guru Granth Sahib; emphasizes equality and Langar (community kitchen).
  • Bhakti and Sufi Movements: Rejected caste and ritualism; promoted equality; key figures: Dnyaneshwar, Namdev, Kabir, Rahim.

(ii) Status of Women

• Early Vedic Period:
  • Relatively high status; access to Vedic education via upanayana; categories: Sadyavadhu (married after education) and Brahmavadinis (lifelong scholars).
  • Notable scholars: Apala, Ghosha, Gargi, Maitreyi.
  • Participated in social assemblies; could choose partners; monogamy prevalent.
• Later Vedic Period:
  • Decline due to rigid caste system and Brahmin supremacy; upanayana replaced by child marriage.
  • Women restricted to household duties; subjected to three obediences (father, husband, son); dowry practices emerged.
• Jainism:
  • Recognizes women’s role in liberation; Shvetambara sect acknowledges virtuous women (Sola Sati); Digambara emphasizes nudity for liberation.
  • Jain nuns opposed sati, daasi system, and animal sacrifices.
• Buddhism:
  • Women allowed in Sangha as Bhikkhunis; equal suffering acknowledged, but no female Buddha possible.
  • Notable Bhikkhunis: Dhammadinna, Khema, Uppalavanna.
• Medieval Period:
  • Further decline due to invasions and Brahminical laws; practices like child marriage, sati, purdah, and Devadasi system emerged.
  • Education limited to upper-caste women; widow remarriage taboo.

(iii) Nature of Education

• Harappan Civilization: Literacy evident from seal inscriptions.
• Early Vedic Period:
  • Sanskrit-based education; open to all classes, including women; upanayana required for first three varnas.
  • Oral tradition; focus on intellect and character; Kshatriyas learned warfare, Vaishyas trade, Shudras agriculture.
• Later Vedic Period:
  • Women denied education; emphasis on sacrifices; rise of asceticism via Upanishads.
  • Jainism and Buddhism introduced new educational systems via monasteries (viharas).
• Sangham Period:
  • Secular education; included grammar, poetry, mathematics, astronomy, and fine arts.
• Medieval Period:
  • Islamic education based on Quran; Maktabs (elementary), Madrasas (higher learning), and Khanqahs (theological).
  • Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian as mediums; limited education for women.

(iv) Social Life

• Harappan Civilization: Well-planned towns; horizontal division based on skills (peasants, artisans, traders).
• Sangham Period: Coexistence of tribes and castes; Brahmins influential but not dominant.
• Vedic Period:
  • Varna system (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) initially flexible; later rigid jati system based on purity and pollution.
  • Ashramvyavastha: Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, Sanyasa.
• Classical Period (Gupta Empire):
  • Golden Age; advancements in arts, science, and education; equal educational opportunities.
• Medieval Period:
  • Feudal hierarchy during Delhi Sultanate; synthesis of Indian and Islamic culture (e.g., Hindustani language).
  • Destruction of temples; Akbar’s Din-i-Ilahi promoted universal toleration.

(v) Urbanization

• First Urbanization (Harappan Civilization): Well-planned cities with drainage systems; trade with Mesopotamia.
• Second Urbanization (500 BCE – 200 BCE):
  • Deforestation for agriculture; rise of Mahajanapadas; coinage and trade guilds.
  • Magadha as a cultural and political center.

1.2 Colonial Period

Overview

• European conquest began with Portuguese (16th century), followed by Dutch, British, and French.
• British rule (until 20th century) had significant impacts on Indian society.

Consequences

1. Education:
   • English as the medium of instruction; secular curriculum (Mathematics, Science, Sociology).
   • Universities established in 1857 (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras).
   • Rise of Western-educated intelligentsia promoting rationality, equality, and secularism.
2. Culture:
   • Westernization (M.N. Srinivas): Adoption of British lifestyle (food, dress, attitudes).
   • Alatas’ classification: eliminative, additive, supportive, and synthetic changes.
3. Administration:
   • New services (Economic, Education, Revenue, Administrative); English-educated Indians assisted British.
   • Secular judiciary; abolition of feudal authority; acts like Indian Councils Act (1861).
4. Economy:
   • Industrial growth and urbanization; shift from subsistence to market economy.
   • Commercialization of agriculture; famines due to cash crop focus (Bengal, Odisha, 1856).
5. Transport and Communication:
   • Railways, roadways, and telegraph systems; Suez Canal (1869) boosted trade.
6. Nationalist Movement:
   • English unified educated elite, fostering nationalism; rise of Indian National Congress and Gandhi’s leadership.
7. Social Reform Movements:
   • Aimed at reforming regressive practices; promoted education for women and lower castes.
   • Key organizations: Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Satya Shodhak Samaj.
8. Social Legislation:
   • Laws against social evils (e.g., Sati, child marriage); provided hope for the oppressed.

1.3 Post-Independent India

Overview

• Post-1947 India faced new challenges and opportunities, guided by the Constitution and government programs.

Key Factors

1. Constitution of India:
   • Framed by Constituent Assembly (1946); Dr. B.R. Ambedkar led Drafting Committee.
   • Based on global constitutions; promotes liberty, equality, fraternity, and secularism.
   • Notable amendment: Abrogation of Article 370 (2019).
2. Legislation:
   • Laws address civil and criminal matters; examples include Special Marriage Act (1954).
3. Economy:
   • Guided by Five-Year Plans (until 2017); socialist principles initially, followed by globalization (1991).
   • Recent changes: Demonetization, GST, Swachh Bharat, entrepreneurship promotion.
4. Education:
   • Expansion of schools, universities, IITs, IIMs; National Education Policy 2020 aims to transform education.
   • Challenges: Overcrowding and quality issues.
5. Polity:
   • Democratic governance; three arms: Executive, Legislature, Judiciary.
   • Universal voting rights at 18; multi-party system; federal structure.
   • Opposition ensures checks and balances.