Notes Class 12 Chapter 5 Sociology Maharashtra Board

Social Movements in India

5.1 Meaning and Nature of Social Movements

Meaning and Definitions

• Introduction: The term “Social Movement” was coined by Lorenz Von Stein in 1850 in his book History of the French Social Movement from 1789 to the Present. It gained prominence in Europe during the early 19th century.
• Definitions:
  • Turner and Killian: A collectivity acting with continuity to promote or resist change in society or a group.
  • Herbert Blumer: Collective enterprises to establish a new order of life.
  • Sidney Tarrow: Collective challenges to authority, cultural codes by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents, and authorities.

Characteristics of Social Movements

1. Collective in Nature: Involves group action, not individual efforts.
2. Planned and Deliberate: Requires preplanning and is not spontaneous.
3. Ideology and Objectives: Guided by a specific ideology with clear objectives.
4. Social Change: Aims to bring about or resist change in the established societal order.

Types of Social Movements

• David Aberle’s Classification (based on target group and extent of change):
  1. Alternative Social Movements: Seek limited change for specific groups (e.g., prohibition movements).
  2. Reformative Social Movements: Aim for partial societal change (e.g., women’s suffrage).
  3. Redemptive Social Movements: Focus on individual transformation (e.g., religious movements).
  4. Revolutionary Social Movements: Seek radical societal transformation (e.g., communist movements).
• Herbert Blumer’s Classification:
  1. General Social Movements: Broad, loosely organized (e.g., environmentalism).
  2. Specific Social Movements: Focused on particular issues (e.g., trade union movements).
  3. Expressive Social Movements: Focus on personal expression (e.g., cultural movements).

Social Reform Movements in India

• Historical Context: Organized social reform movements began in the 19th century, driven by intellectuals addressing issues like caste, women’s rights, and untouchability.
• Key Reformers and Contributions:
  • Raja Rammohan Roy: Founded Brahmo Samaj (1828); campaigned against Sati, leading to the Sati Abolition Act (1829).
  • Swami Dayanand Saraswati: Established Arya Samaj (1875); opposed caste system, idol worship, and promoted women’s progress.
  • Mahatma Jotiba Phule: Founded Satya Shodhak Samaj (1873); focused on women’s education, widow remarriage, and child marriage prohibition.
  • Rajarshi Shahu Maharaj: Fought caste system and untouchability in Kolhapur.
  • Maharshi Karve: Promoted women’s education through Mahila Vidyalaya (1907) and SNDT University (1916).
  • Dr. B.R. Ambedkar: Advocated for marginalized communities; founded Depressed Classes Education Society (1928).
  • Mahatma Gandhi: Led campaigns for poverty eradication, women’s rights, and ending untouchability.

Causes of Social Movements

1. Cultural Drift: Rapid changes in values and expectations create societal conflicts.
2. Social Disorganization: Uneven growth due to industrialization and urbanization causes norm conflicts.
3. Perceived Social Injustice: Frustration from unjust decisions by authorities fuels movements.
4. Rigidity in Normative Structure: Inflexible societal norms mismatch with public expectations.

Social Movements and Social Change

• Interconnection: Social movements aim to alter society, but not all social changes result from movements.
• Differences:
  • Social movements have a life cycle (emerge, operate, decline); social change does not.
  • Movements are planned and organized; social change may be spontaneous.
  • Movements are not universally present; social change is inevitable and universal.

5.2 Women’s Movement in India

Phases of the Women’s Movement

1. Impact of Social Reformers (19th Century):
   • Overlapped with social reform movements; addressed unequal status of women.
   • Key Figures: Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Behramji Malbari.
   • Organizations: Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj formed Mahila Mandals for women’s platforms.
   • Legislations: Prevention of Sati Act (1829), Widow Remarriage Act (1856), Female Infanticide Prevention Act (1870), Age of Consent Act (1891).
   • Developments: Women’s Indian Association (1917) by Margaret Cousins; All India Women’s Conference (1926).
   • Impact: British liberalism encouraged women’s education, though mainly for upper-caste elites.
2. Impact of Nationalist Movement:
   • Increased women’s participation in the independence struggle, influenced by Gandhi.
   • Key Leaders: Kasturba Gandhi, Vijayalakshmi Pandit, Annie Besant (Home Rule Movement), Sarojini Naidu (Women’s Suffrage), Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kriplani.
   • Role: Women managed protests when male leaders were imprisoned; Quit India Resolution (1942) recognized women as “Disciplined Soldiers.”
3. Post-Independence Era:
   • Slowed due to focus on political independence and other issues like tribal unrest.
   • International Women’s Decade (1975-85): UN declared 1975 as International Women’s Year; Towards Equality report (1974) highlighted patriarchy and violence against women.
   • Key Cases: Mathura Rape Case (1972), Roop Kanwar Sati Case (1987), Nirbhaya Rape Case (2012).
   • Developments: Rise of women’s organizations in Mumbai, Pune, Delhi; publications like Baija, Manushi.
   • Focus: Violence against women, dowry deaths, domestic violence, and legislative equality demands.
   • Dalit Feminist Movement: Emerged to address specific issues of Dalit women.
4. Towards Women’s Empowerment:
   • Expanded to rural and tribal areas; includes women as beneficiaries and participants.
   • Participants: Women activists, enlightened men, NGOs, and government.
   • Objectives: Equal rights, elimination of discrimination, and women’s empowerment.
   • Vishaka Guidelines (1997, revised 2013): Address workplace sexual harassment for a safe work environment.

5.3 Workers’ Movement in India

Historical Context

• Triggered by industrialization, which introduced factory systems and class divisions (industrialists vs. laborers).
• Exploitation (low wages, long hours, poor conditions) led to worker protests.

Phases of the Workers’ Movement

1. Emergence (1850-1918):
   • Spontaneous protests without organization.
   • Key Figures:
     • Shapurji Bengalee: Led to the First Factories Act (1881).
     • Narayan Meghaji Lokhande: Founded Bombay Mill Hands Association (1884); recognized as the Father of the Indian Workers’ Movement.
   • Early movements were moderate, led by philanthropists for workers’ welfare.
2. Rise of Pressure Groups (1918-1947):
   • Post-World War I economic changes increased costs but not wages, leading to strikes (e.g., Bombay textile workers, Kanpur jute mills).
   • Trade Unions: All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) formed in 1920 under Lala Lajpatrai; Bombay Textile Labour Union recognized in 1926 under the Indian Trade Union Act.
   • Leftist Influence: Marxist ideology encouraged workers to challenge capitalism.
   • Great Depression: Increased strikes; leaders like Muzaffer Ahmed and Shripad Amrut Dange were prominent.
   • National Trade Union Federation (NTUF): Formed to coordinate efforts.
3. Role of INTUC (1948-1960):
   • Organizations: Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC, 1947), Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS, 1948), United Trade Union Congress (UTUC, 1949), Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS, 1955).
   • Issues: Shifted from wages to suspension, unfair dismissal, and workers’ rights.
   • Politicization: Political parties developed trade union wings, leading to splits (e.g., CPI-CPM split led to Centre for Indian Trade Unions, CITU).
4. Consolidation and Diversification (After 1960):
   • Successes: Improved remuneration and work conditions until the 1950s.
   • Industrial Disputes Act (1947): Provided mechanisms for resolving conflicts.
   • Great Bombay Textile Strike (1982): Led by Datta Samant; involved 250,000 workers demanding wage hikes and scrapping of the Bombay Industrial Act. Resulted in industry losses and worker pauperization.
   • Current Status: 16,154 trade unions (2012); Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh is the largest. Prominent unions include AITUC, INTUC, and SEWA.

5.4 Farmers’ Movement in India

Context

• India’s agricultural predominance makes farmers a significant group, though geographically scattered.
• Movements arose due to exploitation and unrest.

Phases of the Farmers’ Movement

1. Early Agitations (1857-1921):
   • British exploitative revenue systems and Zamindari system led to land loss and indebtedness.
   • Revolts: Deccan riots, Bengal tenant upsurges, Punjab Kisan struggles.
   • Congress-Led Struggles: Champaran Struggle (1917-18) against indigo planters; Kaira Satyagraha against land revenue.
2. Emergence of Kisan Sabhas (1922-1946):
   • Congress support for landlords sparked farmer backlash.
   • Kisan Sabhas: Formed in Bengal, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh; led by Swami Sahajanand Saraswati in Bihar against Zamindari.
   • All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS): Established in 1936 at Lucknow Congress session.
   • Key Struggles: Bardoli (1928-29, 1930-31), Punjab under Raja Mahendra Pratap, Andhra Pradesh against Forest Law.
3. Post-Independence Period:
   • Unrest in agriculturally developed states (e.g., Punjab, Maharashtra).
   • Key Figures:
     • Charansingh: Formed Bharatiya Kranti Dal and Bharatiya Lok Dal (1974); opposed mechanization.
     • Sharad Joshi: Led Shetkari Sangatana (1980).
     • M.D. Nanjundaswamy: Led Karnataka Rajya Ryot Sangh.
   • Developments: 1973 and 1978 farmer conventions; 20-point demand charter.
   • Recent Issues: Farmers’ suicides, 2018 Maharashtra farmers’ march, “Farmers’ Strike” with produce discarded on roads.

5.5 Environmental Movement in India

Definition

• Gadgil and Guha: Organized social activity to promote sustainable resource use, halt environmental degradation, or restore the environment.
• Also called Green Movement or Conservation Movement.

Emergence

• Began in the 1960s with global awareness; US Environmental Policy Act (1970) established Earth Day (April 22).
• UN Conference on Human Environment (1972, Stockholm) and Green Movement in Germany/North America spread awareness.

Unique Features in India

• Aims for collective human good, unlike specific group-focused movements.
• Inclusive of marginalized groups (tribals, farmers, women).
• Uses non-violent, assertive methods.
• Influences policy for ecological benefits.

Causal Issues

• Rapid environmental degradation due to industrialization, urbanization, and technology.
• Population growth and resource overuse.
• Issues: Deforestation, air pollution, soil pollution, marine problems.
• Ideological conflict: Gandhian self-sufficiency vs. Marxist views on inequality-driven degradation.

Significant Movements

1. Chipko Movement (1973):
   • Origin: Chamoli district, Himalayan region; led by Sunderlal Bahuguna, started by Amrita Devi.
   • Features: Non-violent “hug-the-tree” protests against deforestation; strong women’s participation.
   • Cause: Industrialization and development threatened local livelihoods dependent on forests.
   • Impact: Boosted similar protests; authorities retreated after mass action in Mandal village.
2. Narmada Bachao Andolan (1985):
   • Context: Sardar Sarovar Dam on Narmada River promised benefits but caused displacement.
   • Leader: Medha Patkar; became an international movement.
   • Actions: Indefinite dharna (1994); advocated alternative energy methods and rehabilitation.
   • Impact: Highlighted sustainable development and questioned policy decisions.

Categories of Environmental Struggles (Harsh Sethi)

• Forest and forest resources.
• Land use.
• Water.
• Anti-dam movements.
• Pollution and marine resources.