The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Write in brief
1. Write a note on:
a) Guiseppe Mazzini
Answer: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary who founded secret societies like Young Italy and Young Europe. He believed that Italy should be a united republic and that nations were God’s natural units. His ideas inspired revolutionaries in many European countries.
b) Count Camillo de Cavour
Answer: Cavour was the Chief Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont. He led the unification of Italy through diplomacy and war. He made an alliance with France, defeated Austria in 1859, and helped King Victor Emmanuel II to unify Italy.
c) The Greek war of independence
Answer: Greece had been under Ottoman rule since the 15th century. In 1821, the struggle for independence began. Greeks living abroad and many Europeans supported them, inspired by ancient Greek culture. The poet Lord Byron even fought in the war. Finally, Greece was recognized as an independent nation in 1832 by the Treaty of Constantinople.
d) Frankfurt parliament
Answer: In 1848, middle-class Germans formed the Frankfurt Parliament to draft a constitution for a united Germany. They offered the crown to the Prussian king, but he rejected it. The movement failed because monarchs and armies opposed it, and the parliament lost support from workers and peasant.
e) The role of women in nationalist struggles
Answer: Women actively participated in nationalist movements. They formed political associations, published newspapers, and joined demonstrations. However, they were denied political rights and could only attend assemblies as observers. Their demand for equality remained unfulfilled.
2. What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people?
Answer: Steps taken by French revolutionaries to create collective identity
- Introduced ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen).
- Adopted a new flag, the tricolour.
- Composed new hymns, took oaths, and commemorated martyrs.
- Created a centralized administrative system with uniform laws.
- Abolished internal customs duties and used a common system of weights and measures.
- Declared French as the common language of the nation.
3. Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed?
Answer: Marianne was the female allegory of France, while Germania was the female allegory of Germany. Marianne was shown with the red cap, tricolour and cockade, and her images on coins, stamps and statues symbolised the unity of France. Germania was shown with a crown of oak leaves, a symbol of heroism. These female figures were allegories created to give a human face to the idea of the nation. Their portrayal was important as it helped people to emotionally identify with their nations.
4. Briefly trace the process of German unification.
Answer: In 1848, middle-class Germans tried to unite the German confederation through an elected parliament, but this failed. Later, Prussia took the lead under its chief minister Otto von Bismarck, who used the army and diplomacy for unification. Three wars were fought with Austria, Denmark and France, all won by Prussia. Finally, in January 1871, King William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles. The new German state became strong and modern, with emphasis on currency, banking, law and administration.
5. What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him?
Answer: Napoleon introduced the Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic Code, which ended privileges based on birth, established equality before the law, and secured the right to property. He simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudalism and freed peasants from serfdom. Guild restrictions were removed in towns, and transport and communication were improved. Uniform laws, standard weights and measures, and a common currency were introduced, which encouraged trade and made administration more efficient.
Discuss
1. Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals?
Answer: The revolution of 1848 was led by educated middle classes such as professors, teachers, clerks, and businessmen. In France, the monarchy was overthrown and a republic based on universal male suffrage was proclaimed. In Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, liberal middle-class people demanded national unification along with constitutionalism. Their main political ideas were constitutional government, freedom of the press, and freedom of association. Socially, they wanted equality and an end to aristocratic privileges, while economically they supported freedom of markets, removal of trade barriers, and the creation of unified economic territories to encourage growth.
2. Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe.
Answer: Culture played an important role in creating nationalism. First, Romanticism was a cultural movement that emphasised emotions, folk traditions, and shared heritage as the true spirit of the nation. For example, German philosopher Herder claimed that folk songs and dances reflected the national spirit. Second, the Grimm Brothers collected German folktales, which they saw as expressions of authentic German culture, and also promoted the German language through their dictionary. Third, in Poland, where the nation was partitioned, national identity was kept alive through music and language. Folk dances like the polonaise and mazurka became nationalist symbols, and Polish was used in churches to resist Russian control.
3. Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century.
Answer: In Germany, middle-class liberals tried to unify the country in 1848 through an elected assembly, but this failed. Later, Prussia under Otto von Bismarck led the unification with the help of the army and bureaucracy. After wars with Austria, Denmark, and France, Germany was unified in 1871, and William I of Prussia was declared German Emperor at Versailles.
In Italy, nationalists like Mazzini and Garibaldi played important roles, but the main leadership came from Sardinia-Piedmont under King Victor Emmanuel II and his minister Cavour. With diplomatic support from France and the military efforts of Garibaldi’s volunteers, Italy was unified in 1861 under Victor Emmanuel II, though many people still remained unaware of the nationalist idea.
4. How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe?
Answer: The development of nationalism in Britain was different because it was not the result of a sudden revolution. It was a long process of unification where England gradually gained dominance over the other nations of the British Isles. The Act of Union (1707) between England and Scotland created the United Kingdom of Great Britain, where Scotland’s culture and traditions were suppressed. In Ireland, the English supported Protestants against the Catholic majority, and after revolts were crushed, Ireland was forcibly merged into the UK in 1801. A new British nation was thus forged, with English culture, flag, anthem, and language dominating, while the older nations survived only as subordinate partners.
5. Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?
Answer: The Balkans was a region of ethnic and geographical diversity, including modern-day countries like Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and others, whose people were broadly known as Slavs. Much of the Balkans was under Ottoman control, and with the decline of the Ottoman Empire, different nationalities began to demand independence. Each group used history to prove its claim and was jealous of the others. At the same time, big powers like Russia, Germany, Austria, and England wanted to extend their influence in the region. This mixture of ethnic rivalry and great power competition made the Balkans very explosive and led to conflicts that eventually caused the outbreak of the First World War.
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