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Notes Class 11 Chemistry Chapter 6 Equilibrium

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 11 CBSE • Chemical Equilibrium In a chemical reaction chemical equilibrium is defined as the state at which there is no further change in concentration of reactants and products. For example, At equilibrium the rate of forward reaction is equal to the rate of backward reaction. Equilibrium mixture: The mixture of […]

Notes Class 11 Chemistry Chapter 5 Thermodynamics

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 11 CBSE • Important Terms and Definitions System: Refers to the portion of universe which is under observation. Surroundings: Everything else in the universe except system is called surroundings. The Universe = The System + The Surroundings. Open System: In a system, when there is exchange of energy and matter taking place […]

Notes Class 11 Chemistry Chapter 5 States of Matter

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 11 • Intermolecular Forces Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction and repulsion between interacting particles have permanent dipole moments. This interaction is stronger than the London forces but is weaker than ion-ion interaction because only partial charges are involved. The attractive forces decrease with the increase of distance […]

Notes Class 11 Chemistry Chapter 4 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 11 CBSE • Chemical Bond The force that holds different atoms in a molecule is called chemical bond. • Octet Rule Atoms of different elements take part in chemical combination in order to complete their octet or to attain the noble gas configuration. • Valence Electrons It is the […]

Notes Class 11 Chemistry Chapter 2 Structure of Atom

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 11 CBSE • Discovery of Electron—Discharge Tube Experiment In 1879, William Crooks studied the conduction of electricity through gases at low pressure. He performed the experiment in a discharge tube which is a cylindrical hard glass tube about 60 cm in length. It is sealed at both the ends […]

Notes Class 11 Chemistry Chapter 1 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 11 CBSE • Importance of Chemistry Chemistry has a direct impact on our life and has wide range of applications in different fields. These are given below: (A) In Agriculture and Food: (i) It has provided chemical fertilizers such as urea, calcium phosphate, sodium nitrate, ammonium phosphate etc. (ii) […]

Notes Class 12 Biology CBSE

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants Notes Chapter 1 Biology Class 12 Human Reproduction Notes Chapter 2 Biology Class 12 Reproductive Health Notes Chapter 3 Biology Class 12 Principles of Inheritance and Variation Notes Chapter 4 Biology Class 12 Molecular Basis of Inheritance Notes Chapter 5 Biology Class 12 Evolution Notes Chapter 6 Biology Class 12 […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 16 Environmental Issues

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 Pollution, Solid and Radioactive Wastes: 1. Pollution is an undesirable change’in the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of air, water, land and soil. (i) Pollutants are agents that cause undesirable change in the environment. (ii) The Government of India has passed the Environment Protection Act, 1986 to protect and […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 13 Biodiversity and Conservation

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 CBSE Biodiversity: 1. Biodiversity can be defined as the occurrence of different types of genes, gene pools, species, habitats and ecosystem in a given region. (i) The term biodiversity was given by a socio biologist Edward Wilson to describe the combined diversity at all the levels of biological organisation. […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 12 Ecosystem

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 CBSE Ecosystem—Structure and Function,- Productivity and Decomposition: 1. An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact among themselves and also with the surrounding physical environment. The word ‘Ecosystem’ was coined by Sir AG Tansley (1935). 2. The size of an ecosystem varies greatly from a small […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 11 Organisms and Populations

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 CBSE Organisms and Its Environment: 1. Ecology is the branch of biology, which studies the interactions among organisms and their physical (abiotic) environment. 2. The subject ecology is basically concerned with four levels of biological organisation. These are given below: (i) Organism Living component of the environment at individual level […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 10 CBSE

Biotechnology and Its Applications Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 Biotechnological Applications in Agriculture and Medicine: 1. Biotechnology essentially deals with industrial scale production of biopharmaceuticals and biologicals. The applications of biotechnology include therapeutics, diagnostics, genetically modified crops for agriculture, processed food, bioremediation, waste treatment and energy production. 2. Biotechnology have the following three critical research […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 9 CBSE

Biotechnology: Principles and Processes Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 Principles of Biotechnology and Tools of Recombination DNA Technology: 1. Biotechnology can be defined as the use of microorganisms, plants or animal cells or their components to produce products and processes useful to humans. According to the European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB), biotechnology is the […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 8 Microbes in Human Welfare

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 CBSE Microbes in Household Products, Industrial Products and in Sewage Treatment: 1. Microbes are the major components of biological systems on the earth. They are present everywhere, i.e. in soil, water, air, inside our bodies and those of other animals and plants. They can also be found deep inside […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 9 Strategies Enhancement in Food Production

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 Animal Husbandry: 1. Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock. It deals with the care and breeding of livestock like buffaloes, cows, pigs, horses, cattle, sheep, goat, etc. It also includes poultry farming and fisheries. More than 70% of the world’s livestock population is in […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 7 Human Health and Disease

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 CBSE Health, Common Diseases in Human and Immunity: 1. Health is defined as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. (i) The factors which affect human health are: (a) Genetic disorders (b) Infections (c) Lifestyle. (ii) Balanced diet, personal hygiene and regular exercise are very important to […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 6 Evolution

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 CBSE The Origin of Life and Evidences of Evolution: 1. The study of history of life forms on earth is called evolutionary biology. 2. Evolution is a process that results in heritable changes in population spread over many generations leading to diversity of organisms on earth. 3. Origin of life is […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 5 Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 CBSE The DNA and RNA World: 1. Over the years after Mendel, the nature of the genetic material was investigated, resulting in the realisation that DNA is the genetic material in majority of organisms. 2. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the two types of nucleic acid found in […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 4 Principles of Inheritance and Variation

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 CBSE Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance: 1. Genetics is the branch of biology, which deals with inheritance and variation of characters from parents to offspring. 2. Inheritance is the process by which characters or traits are transferred from one generation to the next. 3. Variation is the degree by which progeny differs […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 3 Reproductive Health

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 CBSE Reproductive Health Problems and Strategies: 1. Reproductive health simply refers to healthy reproductive organs with normal functions. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), reproductive health means a total well-being in all aspects of reproduction, i.e. physical, emotional, behavioural and social. 2. The improved reproductive health of society […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 2 Human Reproduction

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 CBSE 1. Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous organisms. There are remarkable differences between the reproductive events and systems in male and female. 2. Male reproductive system includes a pair of testes, accessory ducts, glands and the external genitalia. (i) Testes are located outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 1 CBSE

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12  Sexual reproduction is the process of fusion of haploid gametes, resulting in the production of a diploid zygote, which ultimately develops into a new organism. All flowering plants show sexual reproduction. 1. Flowers are the site of sexual reproduction in flowering plants. (i) A […]

Notes Class 12 Biology Chapter 1 Reproduction in Organisms

Notes For All Chapters Biology Class 12 Reproduction: 1. The period between birth and natural death of an organism is called its lifespan. It can vary from less than a day to more than 400 yrs. Whatever be the lifespan, death of every individual organism is a certainty, i. e. no individual is immortal, except […]

Notes Class 12 Chemistry CBSE

Solutions Notes Chapter 1 Chemistry  Class 12 Electrochemistry Notes Chapter 2 Chemistry Class 12 Chemical Kinetics Notes Chapter 3 Chemistry   Class 12 The d and f Block Elements Notes Chapter 4 Chemistry Class 12 Coordination Compounds Notes Chapter 5 Chemistry   Class 12 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes Notes Chapter 6 Chemistry  Class 12 Alcohols, Phenols […]

Notes Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 16 Chemistry in Everyday life

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 12 1. Chemicals play a very important role in improving the quality of human life. Many substances which are used in our daily life situations are chemical compounds. 2. Drugs are chemicals of low molecular masses (-100- 500 u). These interacts with macromolecular targets and produce a biological response. 3. If taken in doses […]

Notes Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 15 Polymers

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 12 1. A polymer is a large molecule of high molecular mass formed by the repetitive bonding of many small molecules called monomers. The process by which the monomers are transformed into polymers is called polymerisation. As polymers are single big size molecules, they are also called  macromolecules. 2. Classification of polymers […]

Notes Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 10 Biomolecules

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 12 CBSE 1. Carbohydrates is a class of compounds that include polyhydric aldehydes and ketones and large number of other polymeric molecules that yield these on hydrolysis, e.g., sugars, glycogen, cellulose, starch, etc. 2. Depending upon their behaviour on hydrolysis, carbohydrates are further divided into three types: Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose […]

Notes Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 9 Amines

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 12 CBSE 1. Amines are the derivatives of ammonia in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by alkyl groups. 2. Amines are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary according as one, two or three hydrogen atoms in the ammonia molecule have been substituted by alkyl groups. 3. Preparation of amines: […]

Notes Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 8 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 12 CBSE 1. The classes of organic compounds containing carbonyl group (CO) as the functional group are aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and their derivates. These are collectively called carbonyl compounds. 2. Nature of carbonyl group: Oxygen atom in carbonyl group is far more electronegative than carbon atom. As a result, the […]

Notes Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 7 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 12 CBSE 1. Alcohols and phenols may be classified as monohydric, dihydric, trihydric or polyhydric according to number of hydroxyl groups they contain one, two, three or many respectively in their molecules. 2. Primary (1°), secondary (2°) and tertiary (3°) alcohols are those in which as the OH group is attached […]

Notes Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 6 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 12 CBSE 1. Haloalkanes are classified as fluoro, chloro, bromo or iodo compounds according to the type of halogen present and as mono-, di- tri-, tetra- haloalkanes, etc., according to the one, two, three, four, etc., halogen atoms respectively present in their molecule. 2. Alkyl halides are further classified as primary […]

Notes Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 5 Coordination Compounds

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 12 CBSE 1. Coordination compounds contain a central atom (or cation) which is coordinated to a suitable number of anions or neutral molecules and usually retain their identity in solution as well as in solid state. These may be a positively charged, negatively charged or a neutral species, [Co(NH3)6]3+, [NiCl4]2-, […]

Notes Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 4 The d and f Block Elements

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 12 CBSE 1. The elements lying in the middle of Periodic Table between s-block and p-block elements (i.e between group 2 and 13) are known as d-block or transition elements. 2. There are three transition series each of 10 elements: (i) First transition series: It involves filling of 3d-orbitals. It starts from scandium […]

Notes Class 12 Chemistry Chapter 7 The p-Block Elements

Notes For All Chapters Chemistry Class 12 I Group 15 Elements: The Nitrogen Family 1. In group 15 of the Periodic Table, the elements, nitrogen (7N), phosphorus (15P), arsenic (33As), antimony (51Sb) and bismuth (83Bi) are present. 2. (a) The elements of this group can exhibit various oxidation states ranging between -3 to+ 5. (b) Maximum covalency […]