Class 6 Social Science Notes Chapter 6 Exploring Society India and Beyond

The Beginnings of Indian Civilisation

The Harappan Civilization

Names and Characteristics:

• Also known as the Harappan, Indus, or Indus-Sarasvatī Civilization.
• Remarkable for its balanced community structure, with minimal glaring differences between the rich and poor.
• The society was characterized by mutual accommodation rather than exploitation.

Definition of Civilization

• General Definition:
  • Civilization refers to an advanced stage of human societies.
• Characteristics of Civilization:
  1. Government and Administration:
     • Essential for managing complex societies and their activities.
  2. Urbanism:
     • Includes town-planning, city growth and management, water management, and drainage systems.
  3. Crafts:
     • Management of raw materials (e.g., stone, metal) and production of finished goods (e.g., ornaments, tools).
  4. Trade:
     • Internal trade within cities or regions and external trade with distant regions or other parts of the world.
  5. Writing:
     • Needed for record-keeping and communication.
  6. Cultural Ideas:
     • Expressed through art, architecture, literature, oral traditions, or social customs.
  7. Productive Agriculture:
     • Sufficient to feed both villages and cities.

Historical Context of Civilization

• Emergence:
  • Civilizations began at different times globally.
  • In Mesopotamia (modern Iraq and Syria), civilization began around 6,000 years ago.
  • Ancient Egypt followed a few centuries later.
  • These early civilizations significantly contributed to humanity’s progress.

Indian Subcontinent

• Geography and Agriculture:
  • Fertile plains of the Punjab (divided between India and Pakistan) and Sindh (now in Pakistan), watered by the Indus River and its tributaries.
  • The Sarasvatī River, flowing from the Himalayas through Haryana, Punjab, parts of Rajasthan, and Gujarat, was also significant.
• Development:
  • From around 3500 BCE, villages transitioned into towns, which evolved into cities around 2600 BCE.
  • This transition is known as the ‘First Urbanisation of India’.

Archaeological Terms

• Civilization Names:
  • Known as ‘Indus’, ‘Harappan’, ‘Indus-Sarasvatī’, or ‘Sindhu-Sarasvatī’ civilization.
  • Inhabitants are called ‘Harappans’.
• Significance:
  • One of the oldest civilizations in the world.

The Sarasvatī River

• Current Status:
  • The river is known today as the ‘Ghaggar’ in India and ‘Hakra’ in Pakistan.
  • It is a seasonal river, flowing only during the rainy season.
• Historical References:
  • Mentioned in the Ṛig Veda, an ancient collection of prayers.
  • In the Ṛig Veda, the Sarasvatī is revered as both a goddess and a river flowing ‘from the mountain to the sea’.
  • Later texts describe the river as drying up and eventually disappearing.

Town-Planning and Archaeological Discoveries

• Initial Discoveries:
  • Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, located in present-day Pakistan, were the first cities of this civilization discovered in 1924.
  • The civilization was initially referred to as the ‘Indus Valley Civilization’ due to these early discoveries.
• Subsequent Discoveries:
  • Major cities such as Dholavira (Gujarat), Rakhigarhi (Haryana), and Ganweriwala (Cholistan desert, Pakistan) were discovered later.
  • Numerous smaller sites, including Lothal (Gujarat), Farmana (Haryana), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Bhirrana, and Banawali (Haryana), have also been identified.
  • Discoveries in the Sarasvatī basin highlight a high density of sites in the region.

Urban Planning and Architecture

• City Layout:
  • Larger Harappan cities were constructed with precise planning.
  • Cities had wide streets oriented to the cardinal directions.
  • Typically surrounded by fortifications.
  • Divided into two main parts:
    • Upper Town: Likely where the local elite resided.
    • Lower Town: Where common people lived.
• Building Types:
  • Large buildings may have been used for collective purposes, such as warehouses for storing goods.
  • Individual houses, regardless of size, were constructed with similar quality and generally made of bricks.

Notable Structures

• The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro:
  • A prominent structure measuring approximately 12 x 7 meters.
  • Constructed with waterproofing materials (natural bitumen) applied on top of carefully laid bricks.
  • Surrounded by small rooms, including one with a well.
  • Features a drain for emptying and refilling with freshwater.
• Purpose of the Great Bath:
  • Various interpretations include it being a public bath, a private bath for the royal family, or a tank for religious rituals.
  • The public bath interpretation is now considered unlikely, as most houses in Mohenjo-daro had individual bathrooms.

Water Management

• Importance:
  • The Harappans placed significant emphasis on water management and cleanliness.
• Household Water Systems:
  • Homes typically included separate bathing areas connected to a broader network of drains.
  • Drains generally ran below streets to carry waste water away efficiently.
• Water Sources:
  • In Mohenjo-daro: Water was drawn from numerous wells made of bricks.
  • In other regions: Water may have been sourced from ponds, nearby streams, or human-made reservoirs.
  • Dholavira:
    • Notable for its large reservoirs.
    • The largest reservoir measured 73 meters in length.
    • At least six large reservoirs were constructed, some cut into rock.
    • Reservoirs were interconnected via underground drains for effective water harvesting and distribution.

Harappan Diet and Agriculture

• Settlement Locations:
  • Settlements were often established along riverbanks for easy water access and fertile soil for agriculture.
• Agricultural Products:
  • Cereals: Barley, wheat, some millets, and occasionally rice.
  • Pulses and Vegetables: Various types were cultivated.
  • Cotton: The Harappans were among the first in Eurasia to cultivate cotton, used for weaving clothes.
• Farming Tools:
  • Farming tools, including the plough, were developed, with some designs still used today.
• Agricultural Management:
  • Hundreds of small rural sites or villages managed intensive agricultural activities.
  • Cities depended on a steady supply of agricultural produce from these rural areas.

Animal Domestication and Fishing

• Animal Domestication:
  • Various animals were domesticated for meat consumption.
• Fishing:
  • Both river and sea fishing were practiced, as indicated by the abundance of animal and fish bones found in excavations.

Culinary Discoveries

• Cooking Pots:
  • Scientific analysis of clay pots revealed the presence of:
    • Dairy Products: Expected findings.
    • Turmeric, Ginger, and Banana: Surprising findings, indicating a diverse diet.

A Brisk Trade

• Trade Activities:
  • The Harappans were actively engaged in trade both within their civilization (between cities) and with other civilizations and cultures both within and outside India.
  • Exports:
    • Ornaments: Included beads of carnelian, a reddish semiprecious stone primarily found in Gujarat.
    • Timber: Exported from Harappan regions.
    • Objects of Daily Use: Such as items from everyday life.
    • Gold and Cotton: Likely exports, though evidence is not specific.
    • Food Items: Possible exports.
  • Carnelian Beads:
    • Most favored ornament.
    • Crafted with special techniques to drill holes for stringing and decorating.
  • Shell Bangles:
    • Made from conch shells, which require sophisticated techniques due to the hardness of the material.
• Imports:
  • Likely included copper, which was not abundant in Harappan regions.

Trade Routes and Maritime Activity

• Trade Routes:
  • Land Routes: Used for regional trade.
  • Rivers: Facilitated trade within the region.
  • Sea Routes: Used for distant trade, marking the first intensive maritime activity in India.
• Coastal Settlements:
  • Many Harappan settlements were located along the coasts of Gujarat and Sindh.
  • Lothal:
    • A small settlement in Gujarat with a significant basin measuring 217 meters in length and 36 meters in width.
    • The basin is believed to be a dockyard, used for receiving and sending boats for further transportation of goods.

Trade Identification and Seals

• Trade Seals:
  • Thousands of small seals were excavated from various settlements.
  • Material: Made of steatite, a soft stone hardened through heating.
  • Design:
    • Generally a few centimeters in size.
    • Depict animal figures with accompanying signs that are part of a writing system.
    • The writing system and the symbolic meaning of the animal figures are not yet fully understood.

The End or a New Beginning?

• Timeline:
  • Around 1900 BCE, the Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilization began to decline.
• City Abandonment:
  • Cities were abandoned one by one.
  • Inhabitants who remained adopted a rural lifestyle.
  • The previous system of government or administration seems to have disappeared.
  • The Harappans dispersed into hundreds or thousands of small rural settlements.

Causes of Decline

• Earlier Theories:
  • Warfare or Invasions: Initially thought to be the cause, but no evidence of warfare or invasions has been found. The Harappans did not seem to have an army or weapons of war, indicating a relatively peaceful civilization.
• Current Understanding:
  1. Climatic Change:
     • Starting around 2200 BCE, a global climatic change led to reduced rainfall and a drier phase.
     • This would have made agriculture more challenging and potentially reduced the food supply to cities.
  2. Drying Up of the Sarasvatī River:
     • The Sarasvatī River dried up in its central basin.
     • Cities in the central basin, such as Kalibangan and Banawali, were abandoned as a result.
  • These factors highlight the dependence of civilizations on climate and environmental conditions for their sustainability.

Legacy and Survival

• Cultural and Technological Continuity:
  • Despite the decline of cities, much of Harappan culture and technology survived.
  • Elements of Harappan civilization were passed on to the next phase of Indian civilization.

Summary

• Overview:
  • The Indus, Harappan, or Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilization is among the oldest in the world.
  • Achievements included planned cities, efficient water management, diverse crafts, and active trade.
  • Agriculture supported a variety of crops.
  • The civilization eventually declined, likely due to climatic and environmental changes, leading to a return to a rural lifestyle.