New Beginnings: Cities and States
1. What is the significance of the term ‘janapada’ in the context of ancient India?
Answer: The term ‘janapada’ means ‘where the people (jana) have set foot (pada),’ referring to a territory settled by a clan or group sharing common language and customs, led by a rājā or ruler. It marked the emergence of organized territorial units in north India towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE.
2. How did the mahājanapadas differ from the janapadas?
Answer: Mahājanapadas were larger, more organized states formed by the merging of smaller janapadas by the 8th or 7th centuries BCE. Unlike the smaller janapadas, mahājanapadas had well-fortified capital cities, stronger economies, and more complex governance systems, with some functioning as monarchies and others as early republics.
3. What role did the fertile Ganga plains play in the growth of mahājanapadas?
Answer: The fertile Ganga plains supported extensive agriculture, providing surplus food to sustain growing populations. This, along with access to iron ore and emerging trade networks, enabled the mahājanapadas to prosper and develop urban centers.
4. Why were iron tools significant during the Second Urbanisation of India?
Answer: Iron tools, which became widespread by the late 2nd millennium BCE, facilitated large-scale agriculture by clearing forests and tilling harder soils. They also enabled the production of sharper and lighter weapons, supporting warfare and defense, which were crucial for the growth of urban centers and mahājanapadas.
5. What were the two main sources used to learn about the Second Urbanisation in India?
Answer: The two main sources are archaeological excavations, which confirm the existence of ancient urban centers, and ancient literature, such as late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain texts, which describe these urban centers and their societies.
6. How did the governance of Vajji and Malla mahājanapadas differ from others?
Answer: Vajji and Malla mahājanapadas were known as gaṇas or sanghas, functioning as early republics. Their sabhā or samiti had significant power, making decisions through discussions and voting, including selecting the rājā, unlike other mahājanapadas, which were monarchies with hereditary rulers.
7. What was the purpose of a moat in the fortified cities of the mahājanapadas?
Answer: A moat was a deep, wide ditch filled with water surrounding a fortified city or fort, serving as an additional defense mechanism to protect against invasions and control the movement of people and goods.
8. What were punch-marked coins, and why were they introduced?
Answer: Punch-marked coins were the first coins in India, made of silver with symbols punched into them, introduced to facilitate growing trade. They allowed standardized exchanges within and between mahājanapadas and with regions outside India.
9. How did the varṇa-jāti system structure ancient Indian society?
Answer: The varṇa-jāti system organized society into varṇas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras) based on roles like knowledge, defense, trade, and labor, and jātis, which were occupational groups with specific skills passed down generations. This system structured economic and social activities but later became rigid, leading to inequalities.
10. What were the Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha, and why were they important?
Answer: Uttarapatha was a trade route connecting northwest India to the Ganga plains and eastern India, while Dakṣhiṇapatha linked Kauśhāmbī to south India. These routes facilitated trade, pilgrimage, and military campaigns, integrating the Subcontinent economically and culturally.
11. How did the decline of the Harappan civilization lead to the absence of urban life in India for a millennium?
Answer: The Harappan civilization, India’s First Urbanisation, disintegrated after 2000 BCE, with cities abandoned or reverting to rural lifestyles. The loss of urban components like writing, sanitation, administration, and specialized occupations led to the absence of urban life until the Second Urbanisation in the 1st millennium BCE.
12. Why were the capitals of mahājanapadas designed with narrow gateways?
Answer: Narrow gateways in the rampart walls of mahājanapada capitals allowed guards to control the movement of people and goods entering or leaving the city, enhancing security and administrative oversight.
13. What role did trade play in the emergence of southern Indian kingdoms like the Cholas, Cheras, and Pānḍyas?
Answer: The southern regions, rich in resources like precious stones, gold, and spices, engaged in profitable trade with the rest of India and overseas kingdoms. This trade supported the emergence and growth of the Chola, Chera, and Pānḍya kingdoms from around 400 BCE.
14. How did the sabhā and samiti contribute to the governance of janapadas?
Answer: The sabhā and samiti were assemblies or councils in janapadas where elders discussed clan matters. The rājā was expected to take their advice, and in some cases, an incompetent ruler could be removed, indicating early democratic traditions.
15. What technological advancements, apart from iron metallurgy, supported the Second Urbanisation?
Answer: Apart from iron metallurgy, the introduction of punch-marked coins facilitated trade, while advancements in agriculture, supported by fertile lands and iron tools, sustained growing urban populations. Additionally, improved fortifications and urban planning, like moats and narrow gateways, supported the development of secure cities.
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