Notes Chapter 4 Class 7 Social Science

New Beginnings: Cities and States

The chapter discusses the Second Urbanisation of India, the rise of janapadas and mahājanapadas, and the evolution of governance systems in early India.
It contrasts the First Urbanisation (Indus/Harappan Civilization, ~2000 BCE) with the Second Urbanisation (1st millennium BCE), highlighting key developments in society, technology, and governance.
Quote by Kauṭilya (from Arthaśāstra): Emphasizes the importance of a well-fortified, resource-rich, and economically productive kingdom with good infrastructure.

Time Period: Early 2nd millennium BCE (~2000 BCE).
Features:
- Urban centers with elaborate structures, crowded streets, busy markets.
- Specialized occupations (e.g., metalsmiths, potters, weavers).
- Writing system, sanitation system, and a centralized administration.
Decline: By 1900 BCE, cities were abandoned or reverted to rural lifestyles. Urban life disappeared for nearly a millennium.

Definition: A new phase of urban development starting in the Ganga plains, parts of the Indus basin, and other regions, spreading across the Indian subcontinent.
Time Period: Began around 8th–7th centuries BCE and continues to the present.
Evidence:
- Archaeological: Excavations of urban centers (e.g., Rājagṛiha, Kauśhāmbī).
- Literary: References in late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain texts.
Reasons for Growth:
- Fertile Ganga plains supported agriculture.
- Availability of iron ore in nearby hills aided tool and weapon production.
- Expansion of trade networks connected regions.

Janapadas:
- Meaning: Derived from Sanskrit (jana = people, pada = foot), meaning “where people have settled.”
- Time Period: End of 2nd millennium BCE.
- Description: Small regional states formed by clans sharing common language and customs, led by a rājā (ruler).
- Governance: The rājā ruled with advice from a sabhā or samiti (assembly of elders).
Mahājanapadas:
- Time Period: 8th–7th centuries BCE.
- Description: Larger states formed by the merger of janapadas. A list of 16 mahājanapadas is commonly mentioned, stretching from Gandhāra (northwest) to Aśhmaka (central India).
- Key Mahājanapadas: Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, Avanti, Vajji, Malla.
- Capitals: Large, fortified cities with moats and narrow gateways for defense (e.g., Rājagṛiha for Magadha, Kauśhāmbī for Vatsa).
- Modern Connection: Many ancient capitals (e.g., Patna, Ujjain) are still major cities today.

Monarchies:
- Most mahājanapadas were monarchies where the rājā held ultimate authority.
- Features:
  - Hereditary rule (passed from father to son).
  - Rājā collected taxes, maintained law and order, built fortifications, and maintained an army.
  - Advised by ministers and an assembly (sabhā or samiti).
  - Incompetent rulers could sometimes be removed by the assembly (though not a formal law).
- Examples: Magadha, Kosala, Avanti.
Early Republics (Gaṇas/Sanghas):
- Some mahājanapadas, like Vajji and Malla, had democratic systems.
- Features:
  - The sabhā or samiti had significant power, making decisions through discussion and voting.
  - The rājā was selected by the assembly, not hereditary.
  - Considered early republics, among the world’s earliest democratic systems.
Significance: These systems laid the foundation for organized governance in India.

Iron Metallurgy:
- Developed in the early 2nd millennium BCE, became widespread by the late 2nd millennium BCE.
- Impact:
  - Improved agriculture with stronger tools (e.g., plows).
  - Produced sharper and lighter weapons (e.g., swords, spears).
  - Facilitated warfare and territorial expansion.
Punch-Marked Coins:
- First coins in India, introduced due to growing trade.
- Made of silver (later copper, gold, etc.), with symbols punched on them.
- Issued by mahājanapadas but used across regions.
Trade Networks:
- Two major routes:
  - Uttarapatha: Connected northwest India to the Ganga plains and eastern India.
  - Dakṣhiṇapatha: Linked Kauśhāmbī to southern India via the Vindhya Range.
- Ports on western and eastern coasts facilitated trade with other regions and overseas.

Definition: A two-fold social organization system based on occupation and class.
Varṇa:
- Four categories from Vedic texts:
  1. Brahmins: Scholars, priests, ritual performers.
  2. Kshatriyas: Warriors, defenders of society.
  3. Vaishyas: Traders, farmers, wealth creators.
  4. Shudras: Artisans, workers, servants.
Jāti:
- Communities with specific occupations (e.g., farmers, smiths, weavers).
- Skills were passed down generations.
- Sub-jātis developed with distinct customs (e.g., marriage, food habits).
Flexibility in Early Periods:
- Individuals/communities could change occupations due to circumstances (e.g., drought, migration).
- Example: Brahmins took up trade or military roles.
Later Rigidity:
- Over time, the system became rigid, leading to inequalities and discrimination, especially during British rule.
Note: The English term caste (from Portuguese casta) refers to jātis or the varṇa-jāti system.

Literature and Thought:
- Emergence of late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain schools of thought.
- Scholars, monks, and nuns spread teachings through travel and pilgrimages.
Art:
- Indian art saw a renewal, which flourished during the age of empires.
Southern India:
- Cities emerged around 400 BCE (e.g., Śhiśhupalgarh in Kalinga).
- Three kingdoms: Cholas, Cheras, Pāṇḍyas (mentioned in ancient Tamil literature).
- Rich in resources (e.g., gold, spices, gemstones), they traded with northern India and overseas.