Notes Chapter 4 Turning Tides: 11th and 12th Centuries Class 7 Social Science

1. Why Are the 11th and 12th Centuries a Period of Transition?

The 11th and 12th centuries are considered a major turning point in Indian history because:

Political Changes

• Turkic invasions entered deep into north India.
• Some powerful Indian dynasties declined.
• New kingdoms emerged in different regions.
• The foundation for the Delhi Sultanate was laid.

Military Changes

• Introduction of fast cavalry and mounted archers.
• Stronger military organisation by Turkic rulers.
• Larger, more organised armies.

Religious Changes

• Islam began spreading in north India.
• New religious ideas and movements developed.
• Bhakti movement became more influential.

Cultural Continuity

Despite invasions:

• Trade continued.
• Temple construction flourished.
• Literature and science progressed.
• Strong kingdoms continued in south and eastern India.

Thus, this period shows both change and continuity.

2. The Ghaznavid Invasions

The Hindu Shāhis

• Ruled parts of present-day Afghanistan and Punjab.
• Controlled the important Khyber Pass .
• The Khyber Pass:
• • Connected India to Central Asia.
  • Was a trade route.
  • Was used by invaders.

They resisted several invasions before being defeated.

Mahmūd of Ghazni

Mahmūd of Ghazni

• Ruler of the Ghaznavid dynasty.
• Capital: Ghazni (Afghanistan).
• First Muslim ruler to invade India repeatedly in this period.
• Conducted 17 raids into India between 1000–1027 CE.

Major Campaigns

1. Defeated Hindu Shāhi rulers Jayapāla and Ānandapāla.
2. Invaded Mathura (1018):
   • Found a magnificent temple.
   • Destroyed it and looted wealth.
3. Attacked Kannauj.
4. In 1026, attacked the famous Somnath Temple in Gujarat.
   • Faced strong resistance.
   • Destroyed temple.
   • Carried huge treasure back.

Military Strength

• Fast-moving cavalry.
• Skilled horse archers.
• Surprise attacks.
• Strong discipline.

Motives

Historians suggest:

• Desire for wealth.
• Temples had accumulated treasure.
• Religious motivation to spread Islam.
• Political prestige.

Impact

• Destruction of temples.
• Killing and enslavement of civilians.
• Massive plunder.
• But he did NOT establish permanent rule beyond Punjab.

3. Al-Bīrūnī – A Great Scholar

Al-Bīrūnī

• Persian scholar.
• Mathematician, astronomer, historian and linguist.
• Came to India with Mahmūd.

Contributions

• Learned Sanskrit.
• Studied Indian texts.
• Compared Indian science with Greek and Islamic knowledge.
• Wrote detailed work on Indian religion and science.
• Translated Patanjali’s Yogasūtras into Arabic.

Observation

He said:

• Indian knowledge was advanced.
• But invasions damaged Indian scientific traditions.
• Learning shifted to safer regions like Kashmir and Varanasi.

4. Bhāskarāchārya – Great Mathematician

Bhāskara II

Born in 1114 CE.

Important Works

1. Līlāvatī
   • Arithmetic
   • Written in poetic form
   • Used riddles and problems
2. Bījagaṇita
   • Algebra
3. Siddhāntaśhiromaṇi
   • Astronomy

Importance

• Clear explanations and proofs.
• Used poetic style.
• Influenced scholars for centuries.
• Later translated into Persian.

5. Eastern India

The Sena Dynasty

• Emerged after decline of Pālas.
• Capital: Nādīya (Bengal).
• Promoted Hindu religion and literature.
• Hosted poet Jayadeva (Gītagovindam).
• Maintained relations with Kāmarūpa and Kalinga.
• Later defeated by Bakhtiyār Khiljī.

The Eastern Gangas

• Ruled Kalinga (Odisha).
• Kingdom extended from Ganga to Godavari.
• Built:
  • Jagannātha Temple at Puri.
  • Later the Sun Temple at Konark.
• Had alliances with Cholas.

6. South Indian Dynasties

The Kākatīyas

• Ruled Telangana and Andhra Pradesh.
• Capital: Orugallu (Warangal).

Achievements

• Built Warangal fort with stone gateways.
• Built Thousand Pillar Temple.
• Promoted Telugu literature.
• Efficient revenue system.
• Strong village self-governance.
• Developed irrigation tanks.

The Hoysalas

• Originated in Karnataka.
• Capitals: Belur and Halebidu.

Achievements

• Unique temple architecture.
• Detailed carvings.
• Sculpted pillars and panels.
• Temples at Belur and Halebidu famous.
• Encouraged Kannada literature.

7. The Cholas – Masters of the Seas

Rājarāja Chola I (985–1014)

Rājarāja Chola I

Achievements

• Conquered parts of Karnataka and Andhra.
• Conquered northern Sri Lanka.
• Built Bṛhadīśvara Temple.
• Encouraged maritime trade.
• Supported Buddhist vihāra at Nāgapaṭṭinam.

Rājendra Chola I (1014–1044)

Rājendra Chola I

Achievements

• Conquered parts of Bengal and Odisha.
• Took title “Gangaikoṇḍachola”.
• Built temple at Gangaikoṇḍacholapuram.
• Conducted naval expedition against Śhrīvijaya.
• Sent diplomatic mission to China.
• Expanded trade.

Decline of Cholas

• Continuous wars drained treasury.
• Gradually weakened.
• Absorbed by Pāṇḍyas in 13th century.

8. The Paramāras

• Ruled Malwa.
• Capital: Dhārā.

King Bhoja

Bhoja

Achievements

• Efficient administration.
• Built Bhojeshwar Temple.
• Created large lake (Bhojtal).
• Wrote on:
  • Architecture
  • Governance
  • Medicine
  • Poetry
• Promoted arts and sciences.

After his death, dynasty declined.

9. The Ghūrids – A Major Turning Point

Muhammad Ghūrī

Muhammad of Ghor

• Took control of Punjab.
• Defeated in Gujarat in 1178.
• Fought Battles of Tarain.

Prithviraj Chauhan

Pṛithvīrāja III

• Ruler of Chāhamānas.
• Capital: Ajmer.
• Won First Battle of Tarain (1191).
• Lost Second Battle of Tarain (1192).
• Executed by Muhammad Ghūrī.

After this, Delhi was captured.

Qutb-ud-din Aibak

• General of Muhammad Ghūrī.
• Expanded control in north India.
• Later founded Delhi Sultanate.

Bakhtiyār Khiljī

Bakhtiyār Khiljī

• Conquered Bihar and Bengal.
• Destroyed great Buddhist centres including Nālandā Mahāvihāra .
• This caused decline of Buddhism.
• Later defeated in Kāmarūpa.
• Assassinated in 1206.

10. Governance and Administration

• Kings needed strong armies.
• Required heavy revenue collection.
• Collected taxes and tribute.
• Maintained elephants, horses and camels.
• Built roads and irrigation systems.

Muhammad Ghūrī:

• Introduced centralised administration.
• Gave land grants for military service.
• System later developed under Delhi Sultanate.

11. Trade and Economy

• Trade with China and Southeast Asia increased.
• Ports on west coast active.
• Merchant guilds strong.
• Agriculture main occupation.

Main products:

• Rice (Ganga plains)
• Wheat (northwest)
• Cotton (Deccan)
• Spices (Kerala)
• Saffron (Kashmir)

Kings supported irrigation through:

• Tanks
• Wells
• Canals

12. Cultural and Religious Developments

Temple Architecture

• Khajuraho temples (Chandellas).
• Hoysala temples.
• Chola temples.
• Eastern Ganga temples.

Rāmānujāchārya

Rāmānujāchārya

• Developed Viśhiṣhṭādvaita philosophy.
• Emphasised devotion (bhakti).
• Opposed strict Advaita philosophy.

Basava (Basaveśhvara)

Basava

• Founded Lingāyat movement.
• Rejected caste system.
• Promoted equality.
• Wrote vachanas in Kannada.
• Created anubhava maṇḍapa for open discussion.

Final Conclusion

This period shows:

Major Changes

• Turkic invasions.
• Spread of Islam.
• Political transformation in north India.
• Destruction of temples and universities.

Continuity

• Strong kingdoms in south and east.
• Trade growth.
• Cultural development.
• Scientific progress.
• Temple construction.
• Bhakti movement growth.

Thus, the 11th and 12th centuries were truly a turning point in Indian history , marked by conflict but also by resilience, creativity and intellectual achievement.