Notes Chapter 2 India’s Long Road to Independence Class 8 Social Science CBSE Board

1. Introduction: India’s Struggle for Freedom

India’s struggle for independence was a long and difficult journey involving people from different regions, religions, languages and communities. Indians challenged British colonial rule through protests, movements, social reforms, revolutionary activities and political campaigns.

The freedom struggle was not led by a single person or organisation. Millions of Indians contributed to it, including peasants, workers, students, tribal communities, women, political leaders and revolutionaries. Many suffered imprisonment, hardship and persecution for their beliefs.

The freedom fighters shared the objective of ending British rule, but they often disagreed about the methods to achieve it. Some supported gradual reforms, others demanded complete independence, some believed in revolutionary action, while Mahatma Gandhi emphasised non-violence and satyagraha.

India finally became independent on 15 August 1947, but independence was accompanied by Partition, violence and the displacement of millions of people.

2. British Rule after the Revolt of 1857

Transfer of power to the British Crown

After the Great Uprising of 1857, the British Crown took direct control of India in 1858 from the East India Company.

• India was governed in the name of Queen Victoria.
• The Secretary of State for India, based in London, supervised Indian affairs.
• The Viceroy, also known as the Governor-General, represented the British Crown in India.
• Approximately 560 Indian princes continued to rule their princely states under British supremacy, known as paramountcy.

The Royal Proclamation of 1858

The proclamation issued in Queen Victoria’s name promised to respect the rights, dignity and honour of Indian princes. It also assured Indians that they would receive fair treatment and that Christianity would not be imposed on them.

However, these promises were not properly respected in practice.

• British Residents and Political Agents interfered in the administration of princely states.
• The independence of these states was reduced largely to a symbolic status.
• Christian missionary activities continued with indirect support from the colonial administration.
• Economic exploitation and discrimination continued.

Economic exploitation

British policies created serious economic difficulties for Indians.

• Heavy land taxes placed a burden on peasants and contributed to severe famines.
• Tribal communities also experienced hardship and discontent.
• Cheap British-manufactured goods flooded Indian markets.
• Local industries struggled to compete with imported British products.

Racial discrimination

Indians were treated as inferior to the British in many areas of public life.

• Indian employees often received lower salaries than British employees doing similar work.
• Courts frequently favoured Europeans.
• Indians faced restrictions in clubs, trains and certain public spaces.
• The Arms Act of 1878 prohibited Indians from keeping arms while allowing the British to do so.
• The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 regulated and censored the Indian-language press.

These policies increased dissatisfaction with British rule and contributed to the growth of nationalist feelings.

3. Social and Religious Reform Movements

During British rule, Indian reformers challenged harmful social practices and promoted education, equality and social improvement. Their work helped create an atmosphere of awareness and self-confidence in Indian society.

Important reform movements

Brahmo Samaj

• Founder: Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• Founded in 1828 at Calcutta.
• Opposed child marriage and caste discrimination.
• Supported widow rights and girls’ education.
• Promoted a monotheistic interpretation of Hinduism.
• Favoured English education.
• Later weakened because of internal disagreements.

Arya Samaj

• Founder: Swami Dayananda Saraswati.
• Founded in 1875 at Bombay.
• Emphasised a return to the Vedas, rational thinking, equality and self-reliance.
• Opposed ritualism and caste based on birth.
• Supported women’s education and widow remarriage.
• Inspired many later freedom fighters in northern India.

Shuddhi Movement

• Associated with Arya Samaj leaders.
• Aimed to reconvert people who had left Hinduism.
• Encouraged social pride, debate and education.

Other important reformers

• Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: Promoted modern education, particularly for girls, and challenged gender inequality.
• Syed Ahmad Khan: Worked for modern education and social reform.
• Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule: Supported education, especially for marginalised groups, and challenged caste and gender discrimination.

Importance of reform movements

These movements questioned existing social inequalities, encouraged education and promoted discussions about social progress. They contributed to a growing awareness of Indian society’s needs and potential.

4. Cultural Influences on Nationalism

Cultural ideas, literature, spirituality and national pride helped strengthen the desire for freedom.

Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay

Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, also known as Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, was a Bengali novelist.

• He wrote popular novels dealing with romance and Indian history.
• His novel Anandamath was published in 1882.
• The novel was set against the background of the Sannyasi Rebellion and the Bengal famine of 1770.
• It presented the motherland as a divine mother.
• The poem Bande Mataram, featured in the novel, became a powerful symbol of nationalist awakening.

The poem had been composed earlier, in 1875. Rabindranath Tagore set it to music and sang it at the Congress session in Calcutta in 1896. In 1950, the Constituent Assembly adopted it as India’s National Song.

Swami Vivekananda

Swami Vivekananda was born as Narendranath Datta in 1863.

• He studied Western literature, history and philosophy, along with ancient Indian texts and classical Indian music.
• He became a prominent disciple of Sri Ramakrishna.
• In 1893, his speech at the Parliament of the World’s Religions in Chicago defended India’s civilisation and culture.
• He travelled and lectured on spirituality, education and national regeneration.
• He founded the Ramakrishna Mission, which combined spiritual practice with social service.
• He encouraged Indians to overcome fear, weakness and self-doubt.
• He supported the cultivation of science and rejected blind imitation of the West.
• He encouraged Indians to draw strength from their cultural and spiritual heritage.

His ideas inspired many freedom fighters. His birthday, 12 January, is observed as National Youth Day in India.

5. The Rise of the Indian National Congress

Foundation of the Congress

The Indian National Congress was established in 1885, with its first session held in Bombay.

Important figures associated with its foundation included:

• Allan Octavian Hume: A British officer who criticised colonial policies and worked to bring Indian leaders together.
• Dadabhai Naoroji: A prominent Indian advocate and political leader.
• Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee: Elected as the first president of the Congress.

Seventy-two delegates from different regions and religions attended the first session. Most belonged to the English-educated upper classes.

Early aims and methods

Initially, the Congress did not demand complete independence. It expressed faith in British rule and sought improvements through discussion and resolutions.

Its demands included:

• Greater Indian participation in governance.
• Protection of civil rights.
• Social and economic reforms.
• Dialogue with the colonial government.

The British government largely ignored these resolutions, offering only minor concessions. Indians therefore became increasingly dissatisfied with the Congress’s gradual approach and British unwillingness to share power meaningfully.

6. Growing Discontent and Early Resistance

The Kuka or Namdhari Movement

Baba Ram Singh strengthened the Kuka Movement, also called the Namdhari Movement, in Punjab during the 1860s and early 1870s.

• The movement emphasised spiritual discipline and moral purity.
• Its followers were called Kukas because of their high-pitched devotional chants.
• It opposed female infanticide and child marriage.
• It promoted simpler marriage ceremonies to help end the dowry system.
• Followers rejected foreign goods and wore simple, hand-spun white clothes.
• They established an independent postal system and private courts to avoid British institutions.
• They strongly opposed cow slaughter in colonial-government-sanctioned slaughterhouses.

In 1872, tensions increased after some Kukas attacked slaughterhouses. The British executed 65 Kukas without trial, and Baba Ram Singh was arrested and exiled to Burma, where he died in captivity.

The movement became an early example of resistance through self-reliance and the rejection of foreign goods.

The Chapekar Brothers

A severe famine in western Maharashtra was followed by an outbreak of bubonic plague in 1896. Harsh measures used by the authorities to control the epidemic caused resentment.

In 1897, the three Chapekar brothers shot the British Plague Commissioner of Poona and a British military officer. They were later arrested and hanged.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was a prominent nationalist leader and a founding member of the Congress.

• He criticised the moderate approach of Congress leaders.
• He wrote against colonial oppression in his Marathi newspaper, Kesari.
• He transformed Ganesh Chaturthi and the Shivaji festival into popular public events.
• He used religious and patriotic symbols to awaken people and encourage resistance.
• He was prosecuted for sedition and sentenced to imprisonment.
• He became popularly known as Lokmanya, meaning “revered by the people”.
• He interpreted and translated the Bhagavad Gita into Marathi; his work was later published in English as The Gita Rahasya.

Tilak’s famous declaration, “Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it,” expressed his determination to achieve self-rule.

Early revolutionary organisations

Several secret societies and revolutionary groups developed as dissatisfaction with British rule increased.

Anushilan Samiti

• Established in Bengal in 1902.
• Had centres in towns and villages.
• Provided intellectual, moral and physical training to young men.
• Aurobindo Ghose worked to coordinate its activities with the help of his brother Barindra Kumar Ghose.

Abhinav Bharat

• A secret revolutionary society associated with V. D. Savarkar.
• Tilak was closely associated with Savarkar’s organisation.

Birsa Munda and tribal resistance

Birsa Munda emerged as a major leader of tribal resistance in the Chota Nagpur region.

• He opposed British exploitation, oppressive landlords and the inroads of Christian missionaries.
• He promised to restore tribal faith, rights and dignity.
• In 1899–1900, he led the Ulgulaan, or Great Tumult.
• The uprising called on tribal communities to reject colonial authority and reclaim their land.
• British repression led to the killing of many Mundas during armed confrontation.
• Birsa was arrested in early 1900 and died in jail four months later, aged 24.

Birsa Munda remains a revered figure in tribal history.

7. Partition of Bengal in 1905 and the National Awakening

Reasons for the partition

Lord Curzon, the Viceroy of India, announced the partition of Bengal in 1905.

The official explanation was that the division would make administration more efficient. However, the chapter describes it as an application of the British policy of divide and rule, separating a largely Muslim eastern region from a largely Hindu western region.

Opposition to the partition

The partition was widely opposed by people who believed it threatened Bengal’s identity and unity.

Important leaders included:

• Rabindranath Tagore.
• Surendranath Banerjee.
• Bipin Chandra Pal.
• Ashwini Kumar Dutt.

Public meetings, processions and protest rallies spread throughout Bengal and beyond. Students also participated. People tied rakhis on one another’s wrists, especially between Hindus and Muslims, as a symbol of unity.

The movement also exposed growing divisions between sections of the Hindu and Muslim communities.

Swadeshi Movement

Swadeshi means “of one’s own country”.

The movement encouraged Indians to use Indian-made goods instead of foreign products.

Its main aims were to:

• Boycott foreign-made goods, particularly British textiles.
• Promote Indian industries and products.
• Reduce economic dependence on British goods.
• Encourage self-reliance and national pride.

Foreign cloth and other imported products were publicly burned. Wearing Indian-spun and Indian-woven fabric became a symbol of resistance.

Boycott Movement

The boycott movement extended beyond foreign goods to British institutions, including government schools, colleges and courts.

However, its impact was limited in some areas because Indian institutions were not sufficiently prepared to replace the British institutions.

Indian enterprises supporting self-reliance

The chapter gives several examples of Indian enterprise:

• Jamsetji Tata established Swadeshi Mills in Bombay in 1886.
• Punjab National Bank was established in Lahore in 1895 with Indian capital. Lala Lajpat Rai was among its founding figures and early directors.
• Prafulla Chandra Ray founded Bengal Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. in 1901.

These enterprises reflected the desire to reduce British economic dominance.

8. Nationalist Ideas and the Demand for Swaraj

The newspaper Bande Mataram

In 1906, Bipin Chandra Pal launched the English daily Bande Mataram. Aurobindo Ghose joined the publication and soon took charge of it.

The newspaper criticised the partition of Bengal and argued that Indians needed greater national autonomy.

It promoted a broader nationalist programme based on:

• Swaraj.
• Swadeshi.
• Boycott.
• National Education.
• Passive resistance to colonial power.

National Education

Nationalists believed that education should not weaken Indian identity through excessive dependence on colonial ideas.

In 1906, the National Council of Education was created and the Bengal National College was established to provide education rooted in Indian thoughts and values while including modern disciplines.

Aurobindo Ghose became the college’s first principal.

Congress session of 1906

At the Calcutta session in December 1906, with Dadabhai Naoroji as president, the Congress declared Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott and National Education as its objectives.

Swaraj means self-rule. At this stage, it could refer either to self-government within the British Empire or to complete independence.

Bharat Mata

The idea of India as a divine motherland became important in nationalist speeches and writings.

• Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s Anandamath influenced this idea.
• In 1905, Abanindranath Tagore painted Bharat Mata.
• Subramania Bharati translated Bande Mataram into Tamil and composed poems celebrating Mother India.
• Lala Lajpat Rai started a publication titled Vande Mataram in Punjab.

The image of Mother India helped express emotional attachment to the country and the desire for freedom.

9. The All-India Muslim League

The All-India Muslim League was founded in Dhaka in December 1906 by prominent Muslim leaders.

Its objective was to protect Muslim political interests in British India.

Reasons for its formation included concerns that Muslims might not receive adequate representation in the Congress, which was perceived by some leaders as dominated by Hindus.

Syed Ahmad Khan had earlier campaigned against the Congress and established the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference in 1886 as an alternative platform.

Initially, the Muslim League mainly represented a limited section of the Muslim population, particularly the elite. Its formation and later political developments contributed to the emergence of the Two-Nation Idea.

10. The Surat Split of 1907

The Congress divided into two broad groups at its Surat session in December 1907.

Moderates

The Moderates favoured gradual reforms and self-government within the British Empire. They preferred dialogue and constitutional methods.

Important leaders included:

• Dadabhai Naoroji.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• Pherozeshah Mehta.
• Surendranath Banerjee.
• Rashbehari Ghosh.

Nationalists

The Nationalists wanted a stronger approach and demanded greater self-rule, with some calling for complete independence.

Important figures included:

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
• Lala Lajpat Rai.
• Aurobindo Ghose.

Tilak was prevented from speaking during the Surat session, and disorder followed. The Nationalist group left and held a separate session.

The split weakened the unity of the Congress at a time when the nationalist movement was gaining momentum.

11. The Revolutionaries

Some freedom fighters believed that peaceful requests and gradual reforms were insufficient. They supported revolutionary action to challenge British authority.

Revolutionary newspapers

• Kesari criticised colonial oppression.
• Bande Mataram promoted nationalist ideas.
• The Bengalee was associated with Surendranath Banerjee.
• Voice of India was associated with Dadabhai Naoroji.
• Yugantar, a Bengali newspaper associated with revolutionaries led by Barindra Ghose, supported open revolt against British rule.

Many nationalist publications faced censorship and suppression.

Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki

In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to assassinate British judge Douglas Kingsford, who had imposed severe sentences on Swadeshi activists.

They attacked a carriage they believed was carrying Kingsford, but two British women were killed instead.

Prafulla Chaki died before he could be captured. Khudiram Bose was arrested, tried and hanged at the age of 18. He became a national hero among many Indians.

The Alipore Bomb Trial

After the failed attack, Aurobindo Ghose, his brother Barindra and other revolutionaries were arrested.

• Aurobindo was defended by Chittaranjan Das.
• Aurobindo was acquitted.
• Barindra and another revolutionary were sentenced to death, but their sentences were changed on appeal to life imprisonment.
• Several others received long prison sentences.

The British also intensified their suppression of nationalist newspapers and leaders.

Tilak’s imprisonment

Tilak was prosecuted for sedition because of his writings in Kesari. Muhammad Ali Jinnah acted as his lawyer in the case described in the chapter. Tilak was sentenced to six years in Mandalay, in present-day Myanmar.

Freedom struggle in the North-East

The North-East contributed to resistance against British rule through several movements.

• The Khasi Revolt of 1829–1833 was led by Tirot Sing in Meghalaya.
• The Singpho Rebellion took place during the 1830s–1840s in eastern Assam.
• Maniram Dewan and Piyali Baruah were hanged by the British during the 1857 rebellion in Assam.
• Kanak Lata Barua and Kushal Konwar became martyrs during the Quit India Movement.
• Rani Gaidinliu began resisting the British at the age of 13. She urged people not to pay taxes or work for colonial authorities.

Other revolutionary actions

• In 1909, bombs were thrown at Viceroy Minto’s carriage in Ahmedabad, but the target was missed.
• In Nashik, Anant Kanhere, Krishnaji Karve and Vinayak Deshpande shot a district magistrate and were later hanged.
• In 1911, Vanchinathan shot a district collector near Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu.
• In 1912, a bomb was thrown at Viceroy Charles Hardinge during his ceremonial entry into Delhi. Hardinge survived.

The Ghadar Movement

The Ghadar Movement of 1914–1915 aimed to organise an uprising within the British Indian Army during the First World War.

• The Ghadar Party was founded by Indian migrants in North America.
• Lala Hardayal and Sohan Singh Bhakna were among its important figures.
• Revolutionaries, including Rash Behari Bose, Sachindra Nath Sanyal and Kartar Singh Sarabha, tried to organise the uprising.
• British intelligence uncovered the plan.
• Many revolutionaries were arrested, imprisoned or executed.

Although the mutiny failed, the movement influenced later revolutionary efforts.

Cellular Jail

The Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands was used by the British to isolate and imprison revolutionaries far from mainland India. It was known as Kala Pani, or “Black Water”.

Prisoners faced forced labour, solitary confinement and harsh punishments. The jail became a symbol of the suffering and sacrifice of freedom fighters.

Bagha Jatin and the German Plot

Jatin Mukherjee, known as Bagha Jatin, was associated with the Anushilan Samiti and collaborated with Rash Behari Bose.

Their German Plot aimed to obtain German arms and ammunition to organise an armed uprising while Britain was engaged in the First World War.

The plan was discovered by the British. On 9 September 1915, Jatin and his companions fought British police near Balasore in present-day Odisha. Jatin, severely wounded, died the following day.

12. Home Rule Movement and the Lucknow Pact

Bal Gangadhar Tilak returned from prison in 1914 and worked towards three objectives:

• Reuniting the two factions of the Congress.
• Promoting Hindu–Muslim cooperation.
• Achieving Home Rule.

Lucknow Pact, 1916

The Congress factions reunited at the Lucknow session in 1916. The Congress and the All-India Muslim League also reached an agreement called the Lucknow Pact.

Under the pact, the Congress accepted separate electorates for Muslims in elections to provincial and central legislative councils.

The agreement represented an important attempt at political cooperation between the two organisations.

Home Rule Movement

In 1916, Tilak and Annie Besant launched the Home Rule Movement.

Its objective was self-government for India within the British Empire. It sought meaningful internal autonomy rather than the complete independence demanded by some earlier Nationalists.

The British government was unwilling to grant even this demand, and the freedom struggle moved towards wider public participation.

13. Mahatma Gandhi and Satyagraha

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in Porbandar, Gujarat, in 1869.

He studied law in London and later went to South Africa. There, he personally experienced racial discrimination and witnessed the difficulties faced by the Indian community.

These experiences helped him develop satyagraha, meaning insistence on truth.

Main principles of satyagraha

• Truth: Remaining committed to truth.
• Non-violence or ahimsa: Resisting injustice without violence.
• Passive resistance: Opposing unjust authority without using violence.
• Acceptance of suffering: Being prepared to endure hardship in the pursuit of truth.

Gandhi returned to India in 1915 and joined the Congress on the advice of Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

Early satyagraha movements

Gandhi applied satyagraha to local grievances, including:

• The exploitation of indigo farmers in Bihar.
• The low wages of mill workers in Ahmedabad.
• Excessive land revenue demanded from peasants in Kheda, Gujarat.

These movements helped establish Gandhi as a leader who could connect the freedom struggle with ordinary people’s problems.

Vallabhbhai Patel

Vallabhbhai Patel led the Bardoli movement of 1928 for peasant rights. His successful grassroots leadership led Gandhi to give him the title Sardar. He thereafter became known as Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.

14. The Non-Cooperation Movement

Background

The end of the First World War did not bring freedom to India.

During the war:

• Food exports for the British war effort contributed to shortages in India.
• Heavy defence expenditure increased commodity prices.
• Indians faced continuing economic hardship.

In 1919, the British government introduced the Rowlatt Act, which allowed the police to detain people without trial and severely restricted civil liberties.

Launch of the movement

Gandhi launched a nationwide protest against the Rowlatt Act, encouraging prayer, fasting and Hindu–Muslim unity through satyagraha.

The Non-Cooperation Movement encouraged Indians to:

• Boycott foreign goods.
• Avoid government schools and colleges.
• Boycott British courts and institutions.
• Promote Swadeshi goods.
• Practise non-violence.

Gandhi promised Swaraj within a year if people followed non-violence strictly.

After Tilak’s death in August 1920, Gandhi became the leading mass leader of the Congress. The Congress formally launched the Non-Cooperation Movement at its Nagpur session in December 1920. The movement attracted widespread participation.

Khadi and self-reliance

Gandhi promoted khadi, cloth made from hand-spun and hand-woven yarn.

Khadi represented more than clothing. It symbolised self-reliance, provided a source of work for impoverished villagers and challenged British textile imports.

15. The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

On 13 April 1919, thousands of people gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. Some had come to celebrate Baisakhi, while others were peacefully protesting the Rowlatt Act and the arrest of local leaders.

Brigadier-General Dyer and his troops blocked the main exit and opened fire on the unarmed crowd.

• The firing continued for about ten minutes.
• The troops fired approximately 1,650 rounds.
• Official British figures acknowledged nearly 400 deaths and more than 1,200 injured people.
• Indian estimates placed the number of deaths above 1,000.

The massacre shocked India and destroyed public trust in British rule.

Dyer defended his actions before an inquiry committee, which condemned the massacre but did not recommend penal action. Following public outrage, he was removed from India.

Rabindranath Tagore’s response

Rabindranath Tagore wrote a strong letter of protest to the Viceroy and returned the knighthood he had received from the British. His action expressed his condemnation of colonial repression and his solidarity with the people of Punjab.

Udham Singh

Michael O’Dwyer, the lieutenant governor of Punjab at the time, defended Dyer’s actions. In London, about two decades later, revolutionary Udham Singh shot O’Dwyer. Udham Singh was arrested and hanged.

The massacre strengthened the determination of many Indians to end British rule.

16. The Khilafat Movement

The Ottoman Empire’s ruler also held the position of Caliph, regarded as a political and religious leader by many Muslims.

After the First World War, the Ottoman Empire was broken up and the Caliph’s position was threatened. This caused concern among Indian Muslims and led to the Khilafat Movement.

The movement became an important part of the political atmosphere in which Gandhi promoted Hindu–Muslim cooperation and mass mobilisation. It was associated with the wider struggle against British colonial rule.

17. Purna Swaraj and the Civil Disobedience Movement

Simon Commission and the demand for change

The Simon Commission was boycotted in 1927–1928. Its arrival provoked protests, and Lala Lajpat Rai died after injuries sustained during a police lathi charge.

In 1928, a report prepared under Motilal Nehru’s chairmanship called for Dominion status for India. Dominion status would allow internal autonomy, but Britain would retain control over military and foreign policy, and the British monarch would remain the official head of state.

Younger Congress leaders, including Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, increasingly supported the demand for complete independence.

Purna Swaraj

Purna Swaraj means complete independence.

At the Lahore session of the Congress in December 1929, the resolution demanding Purna Swaraj was passed. It declared that Indians had the right to freedom, to enjoy the fruits of their labour and to remove a government that deprived them of these rights.

The resolution rejected continued British control over India.

Salt March and Civil Disobedience

To implement the demand for complete independence, Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement.

• It began with the Salt March in March–April 1930.
• Gandhi led a march of approximately 380 kilometres to Dandi, a coastal village in southern Gujarat.
• At Dandi, he symbolically collected salt.
• The march challenged British authority and became a major act of civil disobedience.

The movement turned the demand for independence into a powerful campaign of public resistance.

18. Revolutionary Activities in the 1920s and 1930s

Some freedom fighters disagreed with Gandhi’s non-violent approach and believed revolutionary action was necessary to put greater pressure on the colonial government.

Hindustan Republican Association

The Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) was inspired by earlier revolutionary efforts, including the Ghadar Movement.

In 1925, revolutionaries led by Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan and Chandrashekhar Azad carried out the Kakori Train Robbery to obtain funds for revolutionary activities.

The British government responded with a major crackdown. Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan and several others were executed and became popular heroes.

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association

The HRA later reorganised itself as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).

Chandrashekhar Azad and Bhagat Singh were among its leaders. They sought to avenge Lala Lajpat Rai’s death after the police lathi charge during the protests against the Simon Commission.

Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev

In 1929, Bhagat Singh and an associate threw two low-intensity bombs in the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi. Their stated intention was to make the authorities listen, not to cause casualties. They distributed pamphlets and raised slogans calling for revolution and justice.

Bhagat Singh was arrested and tried in connection with an earlier assassination. He undertook a long hunger strike to protest against the treatment of Indian prisoners.

Despite appeals for clemency, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar and Shivaram Rajguru were executed in 1931. They became enduring symbols of resistance to colonial rule.

Women revolutionaries

Women also participated in revolutionary activities.

• Suniti Chowdhury and Shanti Ghosh, two students in Comilla, assassinated a district magistrate in 1931.
• Bina Das, a student at Calcutta University, attempted to assassinate the Governor of Bengal during a convocation ceremony.

Their participation showed that the freedom struggle involved people from different ages and backgrounds.

19. Subhas Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army

Subhas Chandra Bose believed that the British should be challenged through stronger action. During the Second World War, he sought support from the Axis powers to fight British rule.

Rash Behari Bose had reached Japan after escaping India and had helped lay the foundations for the Indian National Army (INA).

Subhas Chandra Bose reorganised the INA in 1943 and proclaimed the provisional government of Azad Hind. The INA campaigned in north-eastern India, but its campaigns were defeated in 1944.

The INA nevertheless became an important symbol of the determination to end British rule.

20. The Quit India Movement

The Cripps Mission

During the Second World War, the British government sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India in 1942 to obtain Indian support.

The Cripps Mission offered Dominion status after the war. It also proposed that provinces could choose not to join the future Indian union.

Most Congress leaders, including Gandhi, considered the offer insufficient and rejected it.

Launch of the movement

In August 1942, Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement with the slogan “Do or Die.”

The movement demanded that the British leave India immediately.

Although most senior Congress leaders were arrested, protests continued across the country.

• Mass demonstrations and rallies took place.
• Workers went on strike.
• Students left schools.
• Government buildings were attacked.
• Telegraph poles were uprooted.
• Underground networks helped sustain resistance.

Ram Manohar Lohia and Jayaprakash Narayan were among those who helped keep the underground movement going.

The British authorities suppressed the movement through arrests and repression. Nevertheless, it demonstrated that British rule could no longer continue without Indian consent.

Aruna Asaf Ali

When senior Congress leaders were arrested, Aruna Asaf Ali hoisted the national flag at Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay. She went underground and helped coordinate resistance activities and underground bulletins.

She became an important symbol of the Quit India Movement.

21. The Road to Independence, 1945–1947

The impact of the Second World War

The Second World War ended in 1945 with the victory of the Allied powers over the Axis powers.

Britain emerged weakened by the war, and decolonisation was becoming a worldwide trend. The British government increasingly recognised the difficulty of maintaining its empire in India.

Mutinies in the armed forces

• In January 1946, a mutiny involving thousands of personnel took place in the Royal Indian Air Force.
• In February 1946, naval ratings in the Royal Indian Navy rebelled against ill-treatment in Bombay.
• The naval mutiny spread to other places before it was called off.

These events weakened British confidence in its ability to rely on Indian military personnel to maintain colonial rule.

INA trials

The trials of Indian National Army personnel attracted public attention and contributed to growing opposition to British authority.

Together with revolutionary activities, popular protests and armed-forces unrest, these events increased the pressure on the British government to transfer power.

Cabinet Mission and political disagreements

The Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946 attempted to find a political arrangement for the transfer of power. However, disagreements over the future political structure of India continued.

The political divide between the Congress and the Muslim League deepened. The Muslim League’s call for Direct Action Day in August 1946 was followed by widespread communal violence.

The growing communal conflict made a united transfer of power increasingly difficult.

22. Partition, Turmoil and Independence

The decision to partition

After the Second World War, Britain sought to transfer power in India. However, continuing disagreements over political representation and the future relationship between Hindu and Muslim communities contributed to the decision to partition the subcontinent.

India and Pakistan emerged as separate countries in 1947.

The Radcliffe Line

The boundary dividing India and Pakistan was drawn by British lawyer Cyril Radcliffe, who was given a very short time to complete the task.

The Radcliffe Line was announced only a few weeks before Independence Day. The hurried division caused uncertainty and had far-reaching consequences for people living in the affected regions.

Princely states and national integration

At independence, princely states had to decide their future relationship with India or Pakistan. They were also technically free to remain independent.

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel worked to integrate the princely states into India through persuasion and firmness. Military action was used as a last resort in a few cases where rulers refused or delayed merger.

His efforts helped create a geographically unified Indian nation. He became known as the Iron Man of India.

Independence on 15 August 1947

India became independent on 15 August 1947.

Jawaharlal Nehru became the Prime Minister of the new nation, and Lord Mountbatten served as Governor-General.

Independence brought immense joy, but Partition brought widespread violence, displacement and suffering. Millions of people faced the loss of homes and the disruption of their lives.

The new government faced the enormous task of building democratic institutions, rebuilding the country and fulfilling the promise of self-rule.

23. Why Did British Rule End?

The chapter presents independence as the result of many forces working together rather than the achievement of one individual or organisation alone.

Important factors included:

• Gandhi’s non-violent movements and mass mobilisation.
• The Congress’s political campaigns and demands for self-rule.
• Revolutionary activities and attempts to organise armed resistance.
• Popular participation by peasants, workers, students, tribal communities and women.
• The Quit India Movement and the widespread rejection of colonial rule.
• Public response to the INA trials.
• Mutinies in the Royal Indian Air Force and Royal Indian Navy.
• Britain’s weakened position after the Second World War.
• The worldwide trend towards decolonisation.

India’s freedom was therefore a collective victory achieved through decades of effort, sacrifice and resistance.

24. Main Approaches to the Freedom Struggle

The freedom movement included different methods and political viewpoints.

Moderates

• Preferred gradual reforms and dialogue.
• Sought greater Indian participation in governance.
• Initially accepted self-government within the British Empire as an objective.

Nationalists

• Demanded stronger action against colonial rule.
• Promoted Swaraj, Swadeshi, boycott and national education.
• Sought to awaken national pride and popular participation.

Revolutionaries

• Believed that revolutionary action and armed resistance could weaken British authority.
• Organised secret societies, revolutionary publications and uprisings.

Mahatma Gandhi and satyagraha

• Emphasised truth, non-violence and peaceful resistance.
• Mobilised ordinary people through nationwide movements.
• Used boycotts, marches and civil disobedience to challenge colonial laws.

These approaches differed in methods, but they were part of the wider struggle to end British rule.

25. Overall Conclusion

India’s road to independence was long, complex and marked by both unity and disagreement. Reformers challenged social inequalities, nationalists promoted self-rule, revolutionaries resisted colonial authority, and Gandhi led mass movements based on non-violence.

People from across the country made contributions that extended far beyond the few famous names recorded in history. Their collective sacrifices helped bring British rule to an end.

However, independence did not resolve every political disagreement. Partition caused widespread violence and displacement. The achievement of freedom therefore marked both the end of colonial rule and the beginning of the responsibility to build a united, democratic nation.

Important Dates to Remember

Key Terms

• Colonial rule: Control of one country by another power.
• Paramountcy: British supremacy over the princely states.
• Nationalism: A sense of belonging to a nation and the desire to protect its interests and freedom.
• Swaraj: Self-rule.
• Purna Swaraj: Complete independence.
• Swadeshi: Preference for goods produced in one’s own country.
• Boycott: Refusal to use or support particular goods or institutions as a form of protest.
• Satyagraha: Insistence on truth through non-violence and resistance to injustice.
• Ahimsa: Non-violence.
• Civil disobedience: Deliberate refusal to obey laws considered unjust.
• Dominion status: A form of self-government within the British Empire, with certain powers retained by Britain.
• Separate electorates: An electoral arrangement under which a particular community elects its own representatives.
• Partition: Division of British India into India and Pakistan in 1947.
• Decolonisation: The process through which colonial territories gain independence from colonial powers.