State and Society up to 1000 CE
Short Questions
1. What was the main role of the council of ministers?
Answer: The council of ministers advised and supported the king in administration.
2. What does the word janapada mean in Kauṭilya’s Saptāṅga theory?
Answer: It means the territory of the state along with its people.
3. Who was the village headman in the Satavāhana administration?
Answer: The village headman was called the grāmika.
4. What were the tax-free villages of the Pallavas called?
Answer: They were called Brahmadeya villages.
5. What were the small committees of village assemblies known as?
Answer: They were known as variyams.
6. Which system was used to elect members of Chola village assemblies?
Answer: The Kudavolai (ballot pot) system was used.
7. What does the principle of samatva mean?
Answer: It means the principle of sameness among all beings.
8. What does ṛita represent?
Answer: It represents harmony, balance, and the cosmic order.
9. What does dharma mean in this chapter?
Answer: Dharma means duty, righteousness, and moral conduct.
10. What is endogamy?
Answer: Endogamy is the practice of marrying within one’s own social group.
11. What was the smallest social unit in Vedic society?
Answer: The kula (family) was the smallest social unit.
12. What are the four puruṣhārthas?
Answer: Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and Mokṣha.
13. Name any one woman sage mentioned in the Ṛig Veda.
Answer: Apālā. (Other examples are Viśhvavārā, Ghoṣhā, and Lopāmudrā.)
14. Who were the Āḻvārs?
Answer: They were twelve saint-poets devoted to Lord Viṣhṇu.
15. What was the centre of the gurukula?
Answer: The teacher’s home was the centre of the gurukula.
Long Questions
1. Explain Kauṭilya’s Saptāṅga theory of the state.
Answer: Kauṭilya explained that a state has seven important parts: the king, ministers, territory, forts, treasury, army, and allies. According to him, all these parts must work together for good governance and a strong kingdom.
2. How were early Indian empires administered?
Answer: Early Indian empires were divided into provinces, divisions, districts, and villages. Provincial governors and district officers looked after administration. Villages formed the lowest administrative unit, and local officers helped in governing the people efficiently.
3. Describe the system of village administration during the Chola period.
Answer: The Chola Empire was divided into provinces, districts, groups of villages, and villages. Village assemblies managed revenue collection, land records, irrigation, roads, and local disputes. Representatives were chosen through the Kudavolai or ballot pot system.
4. Explain the difference between varṇa and jāti.
Answer: The chapter explains that varṇa consisted of four social categories based mainly on functions and duties. Jāti developed later because of intermarriage, migration, territorial differences, and new occupations. Unlike the four varṇas, the number of jātis kept increasing over time.
5. What does the chapter say about social mobility in early India?
Answer: The chapter explains that varṇa and jāti were not always rigid. Many rulers came from different social backgrounds, and people also changed occupations. Inscriptions and Sangam literature show that society was often organised according to occupations rather than fixed birth-based status.
6. Explain the position of women in early Indian society.
Answer: Women participated in learning, religious rituals, agriculture, crafts, and social life. Women sages composed hymns in the Ṛig Veda, and later queens such as Prabhāvatī Gupta played important roles in administration. Sangam literature also describes women taking part in many economic activities.
7. Explain the rise of the Bhakti tradition.
Answer: The Bhakti tradition emphasised personal devotion to God without elaborate rituals. It became popular in the 6th century in the Tamil region through the Āḻvārs, who worshipped Lord Viṣhṇu, and the Nāyanmārs, who worshipped Lord Śhiva. They composed many devotional hymns in Tamil.
8. Describe the main features of education in early India.
Answer: Education aimed at developing knowledge, character, and moral values. Students studied the Vedas, grammar, logic, philosophy, mathematics, science, medicine, astronomy, arts, and martial skills. They also practised yoga, meditation, and service to the guru in the gurukula system.
9. What were guilds, and why were they important?
Answer: Guilds were organisations of traders, merchants, and artisans following the same profession. They regulated the quality of goods, fixed prices, maintained discipline, and also worked as banks and financial institutions by accepting deposits and paying interest.
10. How did trade help the economy of early India?
Answer: Trade routes connected different parts of India and linked inland regions with ports. They helped in the movement of goods, people, and ideas. Ports and guilds supported commerce, while trade with regions such as Mesopotamia and Rome increased economic prosperity.
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