Notes Chapter 3 Class 9 Social Science Book – II CBSE Board

Resistance and Resilience (1000–1700 CE)

1. Introduction

• The period from 1000 CE to 1700 CE witnessed major political, social and cultural changes in the Indian subcontinent.
• Repeated invasions and wars led to political instability, religious discrimination and social distress.
• Regional rulers and communities resisted invaders to protect their territories, political power and cultural identities.
• Resistance took both military and cultural forms.
• Despite these challenges, Indian society preserved its traditions, values and spiritual beliefs.
• This period was marked by both conflict and cooperation.

Meaning of Resistance and Resilience

Resilience

• Resilience is the ability to survive, adapt and endure difficult situations.
• It helps individuals, communities and societies face political unrest and instability.
• It involves preserving cultural, social and spiritual traditions despite hardships.
• Examples include restoring places of worship, adapting customs and establishing coexistence among different religious and cultural communities.

Resistance

• Resistance means actively opposing or challenging a force, authority or threat.
• Its purpose is to protect political power, territory, interests and cultural or spiritual identity.
• Resistance may take the form of warfare, alliances, diplomacy, negotiation and other political actions.

Relationship between resistance and resilience

• Resistance involves opposing a threat, while resilience provides the strength to endure difficulties.
• Resilience is the backbone of resistance because it helps communities continue their struggle despite challenges.
• Together, they explain how Indian society protected its political independence and cultural traditions.

2. Safeguarding Sovereignty: Resistance, Alliances and Confederacies

• From the 7th century onwards, the Indian subcontinent witnessed successive invasions motivated by territorial expansion and religious considerations.
• The surplus agricultural produce of fertile plains, supported by perennial river systems, contributed to economic prosperity and attracted invaders.
• Indian rulers used military resistance, strategic alliances and confederacies to protect their territories.

Resistance against Early Invasions

• Arab forces launched invasions by sea and land from the mid-7th century.
• Indian rulers in the Deccan, Malwa, Kashmir and Rajasthan confronted and repulsed these invaders.
• In 1001, Mahmud of Ghazni attacked Jayapala of the Hindu Shahi dynasty.
• During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Hindu Shahis, Chandellas, Solankis and Chauhans resisted Turkish invaders.
• In 1178, Queen Naiki Devi of the Chaulukya kingdom defeated Muhammad Ghuri at the Battle of Kasahrada near Mount Abu.
• By the end of the 12th century, some northern Indian powers, including the Chauhans, Gahadavalas and Senas, came under Turkic control.
• Gujarat, Malwa and Bundelkhand continued resisting for about a hundred years.
• The Turks failed to conquer Odisha and parts of Assam.
• Several states of Rajputana remained important centres of resistance.
• During the 11th and 12th centuries, northern and western India faced the major impact of Turkish invasions, while peninsular India remained free from Turkic control.

Important Dates

3. Rajput Dynasties: Confederacies and Resistance (1200–1500 CE)

Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate

• The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 was a turning point in Indian history.
• The Sultanate introduced administrative practices that increased the centralisation of authority.
• The iqta system assigned territories to military commanders instead of salaries. It also became a means of collecting land revenue and increased the burden on peasants.
• During military campaigns, Sultanate forces demolished some sacred sites belonging to local communities.
• These political and cultural pressures led to strong resistance from several kingdoms and chieftains.

Major Kingdoms that Resisted the Sultanate

• Yadavas of Devagiri: Resisted the Sultans of Delhi in the western Deccan.
• Kakatiyas of Warangal: Opposed the expansion of the Sultanate in the eastern Deccan.
• Hoysala rulers: Resisted Sultanate expansion in present-day Karnataka.
• Rajput dynasties: Several Rajput states of present-day Rajasthan continued to oppose the Sultanate.

Other regions that resisted at different times included Mewar, Gwalior, Malwa, Awadh, Etawah, Ajmer, Jalore, Kalinjar and Kannauj.

These kingdoms played an important role in checking the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate.

4. Rajput–Mughal Relations (1500–1700 CE)

Rise of the Mughals

• In the early 16th century, the Delhi Sultanate weakened under its last ruler, Ibrahim Lodi.
• In 1526, Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat, bringing the Sultanate to an end.
• In 1527, Rana Sangram Singh I, popularly known as Rana Sanga, led a Rajput confederacy against Babur in the Battle of Khanua. Babur won the battle.

Relations between Rajputs and Mughals

• Some Rajput kingdoms, such as Mewar, continued to resist Mughal authority.
• Other rulers, such as the Kachhwaha Rajputs of Amber, established cooperative relationships with the Mughals.
• The Mughals needed Rajput military strength, loyalty and administrative abilities to consolidate and stabilise their empire.
• Akbar introduced the mansabdari system, which combined military organisation with civil administration. It established a hierarchy among nobles and strengthened imperial control.

Mewar’s Resistance against the Mughals

• In 1567–1568, Akbar attacked Mewar and laid siege to the fort of Chittor.
• Under Rana Udai Singh, the Rajputs resisted for more than five months before the fort was captured.
• Rana Udai Singh retreated to the Aravalli Hills with many of his subjects.

Maharana Pratap’s Resistance

• In 1576, Maharana Pratap, the son and successor of Rana Udai Singh, fought Mughal forces in the Battle of Haldighati.
• He adopted guerrilla warfare, using the rugged terrain of the Aravalli Hills to his advantage.
• He launched surprise attacks, raids and ambushes against Mughal forces and their networks.
• During the 1580s, he reclaimed most of his ancestral territories.

Battle of Dewair (1582)

• The Battle of Dewair was fought near Udaipur in 1582.
• It resulted in the collapse of important Mughal military outposts in Mewar.
• It helped Maharana Pratap regain control over Mewar.

Continued Resistance under Amar Singh

• Maharana Pratap’s successor, Maharana Amar Singh, continued the resistance against the Mughals.
• Jahangir launched military campaigns against Mewar in 1605, 1608 and 1609.
• The Rajputs countered these campaigns with strong and organised resistance.
• Eventually, the Mughals acknowledged Mewar’s distinct political position.
• A treaty recognised Mewar’s continued autonomy, and its leadership was exempted from personally attending the Mughal court.

Role of the Bhil Community

• The Bhil community provided important tactical and logistical support to Maharana Pratap.
• Their knowledge of the Aravalli terrain, archery skills and expertise in guerrilla warfare helped strengthen Mewar’s resistance.
• They also acted as guides and demonstrated bravery in the struggle.
• Mewar’s coat of arms later commemorated the alliance by depicting a Rajput warrior and a Bhil warrior, with the local deity Eklingji (Shiva) at the centre.

Other Rajput Rulers Who Resisted

• Important examples include:
• Kanhaḍa Deva Chauhan of Jalore.
• Rana Hammira Deva of Ranthambore.
• Rana Kumbha of Mewar.
• Rao Surjan Hada of Bundi.

5. The Ahom Kingdom: Centuries of Endurance

• The Ahom kingdom of Assam maintained political independence for almost six centuries, from 1228 to 1826.
• It successfully resisted several invasions and attempts at annexation.
• The Ahoms used their knowledge of Assam’s forests, rivers and monsoon cycles to their advantage.
• Instead of relying only on direct confrontation, they used local terrain and military strategies suited to the region.

Major Events

• 1615: The first Ahom–Mughal clash took place near Samdhara. Mughal forces initially gained ground but were forced to retreat.
• 1616: The Ahoms recovered the lost territory.
• 1662: Mir Jumla captured the Ahom capital, Garhgaon. A treaty was imposed on King Jayadhvaj Singha.
• The Ahom king renounced the treaty within a year of the Mughal withdrawal, and the Ahoms retained their independence.
• 1671: Ahom commander Lachit Borphukan defeated a Mughal fleet at the Battle of Saraighat, checking Mughal ambitions in the region.

Factors Behind Ahom Success

1. Knowledge of geography: The Ahoms understood the forests, rivers and monsoon conditions of Assam.
2. Strategic alliances: Alliances strengthened their ability to defend the kingdom.
3. Guerrilla tactics: They adapted their military methods to local conditions.
4. Paik system: This military-administrative organisation supported their defence.
5. Strong navy: Their navy used light, fast boats called bachari, designed for river warfare.
6. River defence: Their victory at Saraighat helped secure the Brahmaputra as an effective territorial boundary.

6. Vijayanagara Empire: Resilience against Expansion

Establishment and Expansion

• The expansion of the Delhi Sultanate weakened several older kingdoms in southern India.
• Malik Kafur, a general of Alauddin Khalji, attacked major cities and temples, including those at Warangal, Belur and Madurai.
• The expansion of Sultanate influence contributed to the decline of the Pandya Kingdom and the emergence of the Madurai Sultanate.
• In 1336, Harihara and Bukka established the independent Vijayanagara Empire near present-day Hampi in Karnataka.
• Vijayanagara means “City of Victory.”
• The region’s rivers and rugged, rocky terrain provided natural defence.
• The empire expanded into territories south of the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers.
• It became a wealthy and influential state and encouraged literature in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit.
• Its capital developed into a major centre of trade, culture and political power.

Expansion under Bukka

• Vijayanagara made major territorial gains during Bukka’s reign.
• It brought the Madurai Sultanate under its control and annexed Arcot.
• In 1342, Hoysala king Vira Ballala III fought the Madurai Sultanate in the Battle of Kannanur.
• The struggle between Vijayanagara and the Madurai Sultanate continued for almost four decades.
• Kumara Kampana eventually defeated the Sultan and ended the Madurai Sultanate.
• He also reinstated divine images in the Rajasimheshwara Temple at Kanchipuram and the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple at Srirangam.

Krishnadevaraya and the Decline

• Vijayanagara reached its peak in the 16th century under Krishnadevaraya.
• He expanded and secured the empire’s dominance over the Deccan.
• He supported temples, including Tirupati and the Vitthala Temple in Vijayanagara.
• In 1565, the Vijayanagara army was defeated at the Battle of Talikota by an alliance of Deccan sultanates.
• The capital was sacked and largely abandoned, and the empire gradually fragmented.
• Several territories came under smaller Nayaka kingdoms.

Resistance by the Nayakas

• The Nayaka kingdoms continued the tradition of resistance after the decline of Vijayanagara.
• Muthu Virappa Nayak III of Madurai defied Mughal authority by refusing to follow a ceremonial practice that symbolised submission to the Mughal emperor.
• His actions represented political defiance without direct military confrontation.

7. The Marathas: The Quest for Swarajya

Meaning of Swarajya

Swarajya means self-rule or an independent, self-governing territory free from external control.

• The Marathas became a powerful political and military force in the Deccan, particularly during the 17th and 18th centuries.
• The establishment of an independent Maratha state in 1674 is closely associated with Chhatrapati Shivaji.
• Their knowledge of the Deccan’s geography, bravery and military abilities strengthened their position.

Maratha Resistance

• The Marathas fought many battles against the Mughals and other powers.
• Prolonged warfare exhausted the Mughal Empire economically and politically.
• Aurangzeb spent more than two decades in the Deccan attempting to control the region and suppress Maratha resistance.
• The Marathas used strategic alliances to extend their influence over different territories.
• They developed a network of tributary relationships beyond the areas under their direct rule.

Importance of Forts

Forts such as Raigad and Sinhagad played an important role in Maratha resistance.

Their major functions were:

• Providing defence against enemy attacks.
• Serving as bases for guerrilla warfare.
• Enabling swift attacks from different directions.
• Providing safe retreats for soldiers.
• Acting as advanced military outposts and fallback capitals.
• Serving as centres of administration and judicial authority.
• Providing water sources, armouries and strong defences to withstand prolonged sieges.

Gingee Fort (Senji Fort): Located in present-day Tamil Nadu, it was an important example of military and civil engineering. It came under the control of several powers, including the Vijayanagara Nayakas, Bijapuri Sultans, Mughals, Marathas, French and English.

8. The Sikhs: Spiritual and Political Resilience

Teachings of Guru Nanak

• Sikhism developed from a spiritual movement founded by Guru Nanak in the late 15th century.
• It emphasised devotion to one God, social equality and rejection of rituals.
• The Sikh community expanded across Punjab, Sindh and the Gangetic plains.

Conflict with the Mughal State

• From the beginning of the 17th century, the Mughal state increasingly intervened in the affairs of the Sikh Gurus.
• Jahangir ordered the execution of Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth Sikh Guru.
• This martyrdom marked a major turning point in Sikh history and contributed to changes in the community’s political and organisational direction.
• Guru Hargobind, the sixth Sikh Guru, was detained at Gwalior Fort. Sikhs visited the fort to pay their respects to him.
• In 1675, Aurangzeb ordered the execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur.
• These events strengthened the Sikh determination to defend their faith and principles.

Important Institutions and Concepts

Akāl Takht

• Guru Hargobind established the Akal Takht as a seat of temporal authority.
• It addressed justice and matters of governance.
• It also represented a response to Mughal political dominance.

Miri-Piri

• Piri represented spiritual authority.
• Miri represented worldly or temporal authority.
• The Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) at Amritsar represented spiritual authority, while the Akal Takht represented temporal authority.

Khalsa

• In 1699, Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa.
• The Khalsa adopted a distinct martial code in response to the changing political and social environment.
• Sikh spiritual identity became closely connected with the pursuit of political identity.

Misals

• The Sikhs organised themselves into armed groups called misals to defend themselves and their territories.
• These groups developed military and administrative structures.
• Eventually, the misals became a network of confederacies united against the Mughals.
• Many people from peasant communities became soldiers and participated in the resistance.

9. Jat Resistance

• The Jats were a farming community from the Ganga–Yamuna Doab.
• During the 17th century, they faced heavy taxation and exploitation under the Mughals.
• Economic hardships and Aurangzeb’s religious policies increased resentment among them.

Major Events

• 1669: The Jats rebelled against the Mughal Empire under Gokul Jat.
• Mughal forces struggled for months to suppress the uprising.
• 1686: The Jats rebelled again under the leadership of the zamindars of Sinsani and Sogar.
• The Mughals sent several armies to suppress the rebellion, leading to a prolonged and fierce struggle.
• By 1691, the Mughals had gained the upper hand, but Jat resistance continued.

10. Bhakti Tradition: Affirmation of the Spirit of Resilience

Meaning and Main Features

• Bhakti means personal devotion to the divine.
• Between the 11th and 17th centuries, Bhakti brought important changes to India’s religious and spiritual life.
• Devotional hymns were composed in local languages.
• The tradition emphasised inclusivity, social and religious equality, simplicity and connections with everyday life.
• It made devotion accessible to people without requiring dependence on religious institutions.

Development of the Bhakti Tradition

• From the 7th century onwards, Bhakti expanded in peninsular India.
• From the 14th century, a strong wave of Bhakti spread across northern India.
• Ramananda helped connect the Bhakti traditions of southern and northern India.

The tradition developed into two broad streams:

How Bhakti Strengthened Resilience

1. Use of local languages: Devotional songs and teachings became accessible to wider sections of society.
2. Community participation: Satsang and devotional singing brought people together.
3. Preservation of traditions: Worship could continue even when temples faced restrictions or destruction.
4. Equality and inclusion: People from diverse social and economic backgrounds participated in the tradition.
5. Shared identity: Local-language hymns encouraged solidarity among devotees.
6. Cultural continuity: Literature and devotional practices helped preserve spiritual teachings.

Important Bhakti Saints and Their Contributions

• Eknath: Composed in Marathi and promoted a devotional path accessible to all.
• Sankardev: Composed the Kirtana Ghosha, an important work in Vaishnava traditions.
• Chaitanya Mahaprabhu: Used public sankirtan in Bengal; community singing also became a form of protest against restrictions on devotional practices.
• Guru Nanak: Used community singing to bridge social divisions.
• Tulsidas: Composed the Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi, making the teachings of the Ramayana accessible to a wider population.
• Atukuri Molla: Composed the Ramayana in Telugu, known as the Molla Ramayanam.
• Akka Mahadevi and Lal Ded: Renounced worldly comforts and lived as ascetics devoted to the divine.
• Bahinabai: Followed the path of devotion to Vithoba while fulfilling her family responsibilities.
• Raskhan: Wrote devotional compositions in Braj, including Prem Vatika and Sujan Raskhan.
• Rahim: Expressed devotion to Krishna through poetry in Braj.

Community Singing and Religious Orders

• Community singing, called sankirtan, brought people together and created a shared sense of belonging.
• The Dadu Panth and Niranjani Sampradaya in Rajasthan provided social stability.
• Some religious orders maintained armies of warrior ascetics to protect trade routes, facilitate the movement of saints and provide educational and medical services.
• The epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were translated into regional languages, helping preserve cultural traditions.

Sulh-i-Kul

• During the later part of Akbar’s reign, the philosophy of Sulh-i-Kul became a state policy.
• It meant “peace with all,” “universal toleration” or “absolute peace.”
• It had political implications because it helped secure the support of political powers beyond the Muslim community.
• Akbar adopted a relatively inclusive approach during the later part of his reign.

Sufism

• Sufism was a mystical dimension of Islam that generally adopted a comparatively liberal outlook.
• It spread through religious orders known as silsilahs.
• The Chishti and Suhrawardi orders became prominent during the Delhi Sultanate.
• The Qadiriyya and Naqshbandiya orders gained importance under the Mughals.
• Sufi khanqahs (hospices) and shrines became centres of popular religious life.
• Sufis adopted local practices and languages, including Hindavi and Bengali, to connect with wider populations.
• Some also incorporated yogic practices such as pranayama.

11. Temples: The Resilience of Sacred Sites

Religious, Social and Political Importance

Temples were important pillars of social, economic and political life.

• They served as centres of worship, education and culture.
• They helped preserve artistic traditions, including Bharatanatyam and other art forms.
• They supported social integration and provided employment to specialised workers.
• They sometimes exercised quasi-judicial authority, collected local taxes and administered legal penalties.
• Rulers supported temples to strengthen their political legitimacy.
• Deities were often regarded as protectors of the state and its people.

Temples and Political Authority

• Some rulers considered themselves representatives or deputies of temple deities.
• The Gajapati rulers of Odisha called themselves the Rauta, or deputy, of Jagannath.
• The Kachhwaha rulers of Jaipur governed on behalf of Govindadeva.
• The Rajput rulers of Kota regarded themselves as representatives of Rama.

Temples and the Economy

• Temples received donations, endowments and land grants.
• They provided employment to architects, artisans, sculptors, priests, musicians and administrative workers.
• The Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur received extensive donations of gold, ornaments and vessels.
• Temple wealth supported irrigation and agricultural development.
• Temples extended credit to cultivators, village assemblies and merchant groups.
• Temple towns such as Thanjavur, Kanchipuram and Puri developed into prominent urban centres.

Destruction, Restoration and Adaptation

• Temple construction expanded between the 7th and 13th centuries under the patronage of different dynasties.
• From the 11th century onwards, many temples were destroyed, particularly during Ghaznavid and Ghurid invasions.
• Local rulers, merchant guilds and religious communities maintained and restored temples.
• Kumar Kampana restored sacred images at temples in southern India.
• Todar Mal and Raja Man Singh supported the reconstruction of the Kashi Vishwanath Temple.
• Raja Man Singh also patronised the Govind Devji Temple at Vrindavan.
• Bundela king Vir Singh supported the construction of the Keshav Dev Temple at Mathura.

Havelī Temples

• From the 16th century onwards, some temples were built in less visible locations, such as narrow lanes.
• Their entrances did not always open onto main streets.
• Some resembled ordinary houses and avoided tall shikharas or elaborate exterior designs.
• Historians sometimes describe these as havelī temples.
• This architectural adaptation helped communities continue their religious practices under difficult circumstances.
• The Jagat Shiromani Temple in Amer is also known as the Mirabai Temple.

12. Indian Economy: Agriculture, Trading Networks and Merchant Communities

Expansion of Agriculture

• The expansion of agriculture and the growth of craft production were important developments during the early second millennium CE.
• Land revenue was the main source of state income.
• As empires expanded, the area under cultivation increased.
• However, land revenue collection became stricter and more exploitative in several regions.
• During the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq, land tax rose to as much as 50% of total agricultural production, in addition to other taxes.

Irrigation and Agricultural Production

• Local populations used irrigation technologies to increase agricultural output.
• These included rope pulleys and the Persian wheel.
• In Vijayanagara, irrigation systems ranged from extensive canal networks to small rain-fed agricultural plots.
• Investment in small-scale irrigation was an important feature of the Vijayanagara economy.

Growth of Inland Trade

• India’s inland regions were connected to trade routes in Central Asia.
• Traders transported goods and artisanal knowledge, often in groups known as caravans.
• The growth of urban centres encouraged the expansion of inland trade.
• Trading communities such as the banjaras connected rural regions with urban centres.
• Revenue-collecting officials also played a role in these connections.

Growth of Maritime Trade

• From the 13th century onwards, seaborne trade expanded significantly.
• Trading networks connected western India with the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea.
• India became a major centre of the Indian Ocean trading network.
• The eastern Mediterranean and China formed important parts of this network before the arrival of Europeans.

The Hundī System

• A hundī was a financial instrument that functioned as a bill of exchange.
• It facilitated large commercial transactions without requiring traders to carry large amounts of currency.
• It was also used for secure long-distance remittances.
• Hundis operated through networks of money-changers called sarrafs and their agents, known as gumasthas.

The Indian Ocean Trading Network

• In the 16th century, two major developments occurred: the arrival of Europeans for trade and the Mughal conquest of northern India.
• The Portuguese attempted to gain greater control over maritime trade.
• The Mughals focused on centralising the land revenue system.
• European involvement later included the Dutch, English, Danes and French.
• Indian merchant networks interacted with European trading companies, making the subcontinent an important centre of global commerce and cultural exchange.
• Before the 15th century, Arab, Chinese and Indian merchants had a major presence in Indian Ocean trade.
• Gujarati merchants later became important participants in this network.

Merchant Communities and Their Roles

Indian merchants were involved in much more than buying and selling. They worked as:

• Traders and shippers.
• Bankers and money-changers.
• Brokers and interpreters.
• Diplomats and bureaucrats.
• Financiers who supported states and political allies.

Other important developments included:

• Peasants supplied raw materials.
• Weavers, dyers and bleachers prepared cotton textiles for delivery.
• Merchant communities flourished in Malabar, Coromandel and Bengal.
• From the 16th century onwards, many peasant groups actively participated in commerce.
• Some learned Portuguese, French, English and Persian to support their commercial activities.

Importance of economic resilience: Agriculture, irrigation, markets, merchant networks, financial instruments and trade helped maintain economic activity despite invasions, political changes and instability.