Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation
Introduction
The history of humans is very old. Most of it happened before writing was invented. We learn about this period mainly
through archaeology — tools, bones, artefacts, and fossils found at ancient sites.
One of the earliest writing systems was the Harappan (Sindhu-Sarasvati) script on seals and pottery. It is
pictographic and has not been deciphered yet. Other early scripts like cuneiform (Sumeria, Mesopotamia) and
hieroglyphs (Egypt) have been deciphered. They began around 5000 years ago and mark the start of recorded history.
Brahmi script was used in India from about 400 BCE.
Before and After Writing
Before Writing
(more than 99% of human history, from about 3 million years ago to 5000 years ago):
- Main sources: Tools, artefacts, and material remains.
- Difficult to know people’s thoughts and ideas.
- Time measurement is approximate.
After Writing
(last 5000 years):
- Sources: Written documents + material remains.
- We get information about names, events, society, politics, and culture.
- Dating of events is more accurate.
Why Study Early Human History?
It helps us understand:
- Biological evolution: Gradual physical and genetic changes from early ancestors (australopithecines) to modern humans (Homo sapiens).
- Cultural evolution: How humans adapted to changing climate and environment during the Quaternary Period (last 26 lakh years). Humans
developed tools and technology to use natural resources.
Humans changed from hunting-gathering to agriculture and food production. Surplus food helped the growth of
civilisation.
Early humans evolved in Africa.Homo erectus was the first to leave Africa around 2 million years ago with stone tools like hand axes and cleavers. Homo sapiens evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago and later spread across the world.
Our Human Ancestors
The earliest settlements were in the “Old World” (Africa, Asia, Europe). Humans are called hominins because they made
tools.
Main Ancestors:
- Homo habilis (“handy man”): Lived in Africa (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and Kenya) about 2.6 million years ago. Made simple chopper stone tools.
- Homo erectus : Lived around 2 million years ago in Africa. Made hand axes and cleavers. Migrated to Asia and Europe.
- Homo neanderthalensis : Lived in Europe and Southwest Asia until about 40,000 years ago. Made flake tools.
- Homo sapiens : Modern humans, the only surviving human species.
Tools were like extra limbs that helped humans do more work. Fossils and tools help archaeologists understand past
life.
Periods of Early Human History
Early human life is divided by changes in tools, lifestyle, and technology:
- Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age): Hunting-gathering with simple stone tools.
- Mesolithic: Transitional period with tiny (microlithic) tools.
- Neolithic (New Stone Age): Agriculture, polished stone tools, domestication of animals and plants, settled villages.
- Chalcolithic: Use of copper along with stone tools.
- Bronze Age: Bronze (copper + tin) tools, towns, and early civilisations.
- Iron Age: Iron tools and more advanced societies.
Palaeolithic Hunter-Gatherers in India
- Oldest stone tools found at Attirampakkam (Tamil Nadu) and Isampur (Karnataka), dated 1.5–1.7 million years ago.
- Tools: Hand axes, cleavers, scrapers, borers, points, blades, and microliths. Used for hunting, digging, scraping
skin, and extracting marrow. - Later tools: Bow and arrow, microblades, bone points, burins (engravers).
- Developments: Cave and rock paintings, body decoration with pigments, beads made of stone, bone, and shell. Symbolic
communication began.
Mesolithic Hunter-Gatherers
Around 12,000 years ago, the climate became warmer. Forests and grasslands grew. This led to more food resources and
population increase.
- Main tools: Microliths for hunting small animals and fishing.
- Fishing became very important.
- Art flourished. Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) has many painted rock shelters from this period.
The Neolithic Revolution
Hunter-gatherers slowly started producing food. This is called the Neolithic Revolution.
- Domestication of plants and animals.
- New tools for farming and processing food.
- Pottery in different shapes.
- First village settlements.
This change happened at different times in different places.
Neolithic in Indian Subcontinent:
- Mehrgarh
(on Bolan River, present Pakistan): Oldest Neolithic site (~7000 BCE). Earliest agricultural village with sun-dried
brick houses, granaries, burial graves, ornaments of lapis lazuli, carnelian, and shells. Grew wheat and barley.
Raised sheep, goats, and zebu cattle. Started using copper (Chalcolithic by ~4000 BCE). This laid the base for the
later Sindhu-Sarasvati civilisation. - By 2500 BCE, Neolithic farming communities spread across most of the subcontinent with cattle herding and
cultivation of cereals, millets, and pulses.
Sindhu–Sarasvatī (Harappan) Civilisation
It grew from Neolithic and Early Harappan (Chalcolithic) settlements.
- Early phase showed continuity in pottery, beads, copper work, and early use of seals and script.
- Ploughed fields found at Kalibangan (double cropping like Rabi and Kharif).
- Standard system of weights and measures (binary for small units, multiples of ten for larger).
- Crafts: Pottery with regional styles, copper work, shell work, semi-precious stone beads.
- Trade and economic growth led to mature urban phase around 2600 BCE.
Bronze Age Civilisations Outside India
These developed in river valleys around the same time as Harappan civilisation.
Mesopotamian Civilisation (Euphrates and Tigris rivers, West Asia):
- Fertile Crescent area.
- Sumerians: First city-states, ziggurats (stepped temple towers), irrigation canals, mud and burnt bricks, cuneiform
writing on clay tablets (~3300 BCE). - Akkadians (from 2334 BCE): First empire under Sargon. Traded with Meluhha (Harappans) — beads, ivory, timber,
copper. - Assyrians and Babylonians (Hammurabi’s law code).
Egyptian Civilisation (Nile River):
- Annual floods brought fertile black soil (kemet).
- Pharaohs as rulers. Pyramids for afterlife. Mummification to preserve body for ka (spirit).
- Hieroglyphic script on papyrus.
- Calendar of 365 days based on Nile floods and Sirius star.
- Social hierarchy: Pharaoh at top, then officials, nobles, priests, free people (farmers, artisans), and
serfs/slaves. - Women had rights to own property and run businesses.
Chinese Civilisation (Huang He and Yangtze rivers):
- Shang and Zhou dynasties in Bronze Age.
- Oracle bones for divination — early source of information.
- Logographic script (characters represent words/ideas).
- Jade objects, bronze vessels, Great Wall for defence.
- Silk production important for trade (Silk Route).
- Highly stratified society with ruling class at the top.
These civilisations developed writing, administration, crafts, and trade. Rivers provided water, fertile soil, and
transport, which supported agriculture and growth of cities. Many cultural traditions today have roots in these Bronze
Age civilisations.
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