Notes Chapter 5 Class 9 Social Science CBSE Board

State and Society up to 1000 CE

Introduction

From the second millennium BCE, we get literary sources like the Rig Veda along with archaeological evidence. These help us understand social, political, cultural, and moral life in detail.

Society is a system of relationships among people who share territory, culture, and a sense of belonging. It is based on families, marriage, customs, and traditions rather than strict laws.

State is an organised political system with rules, laws, rights, duties, and institutions for governance and law and
order. Political systems grew as societies became larger and more complex.

Key ideas: Dharma (duty, righteousness) and chakravarti samrāt (universal ruler) promoted unity and the idea of the Indian subcontinent as one political entity.

The Vedic Period

The Vedas are the earliest Indian literature. They were oral for centuries before being written. The Rig Veda is the oldest, composed in the Sapta-Sindhu region (northwest India).

Four Vedas:

• Rig Veda: 1,028 hymns praising deities and reflecting on creation, life, and death.
• Yajur Veda: Explains rituals and hymns from Rig Veda.
• Sama Veda: Hymns arranged for musical chanting; basis of Indian music (seven svaras).
• Atharva Veda: Hymns for protection from evil and treatment of ailments.

Each Veda has four parts: Samhita (hymns), Brahmana (ritual explanations), Aranyaka (forest philosophy), Upanishad
(Self/Atman and Brahman).

Political Institutions in the Vedic Period

Early society was organised into janas (clans) based on kinship. The Rig Veda mentions about 30 janas, including the Panchajana (five peoples).

• Raja: Clan chief who led in war and protected the group.
• Assemblies: Sabha (smaller, judicial, elites), Samiti (larger, policy decisions), Vidhata (popular gathering for war and
  politics).

Changes in the First Millennium BCE

• More settlements in Ganga region.
• Use of iron tools, more grains (especially paddy), PGW and NBPW pottery.
• Growth in agriculture and material culture.

Early Kingdoms and Republics (Janapadas and Mahajanapadas)

• Shift from kinship to territorial identity ( janapada = where people set foot).
• Around 600–300 BCE: Sixteen mahajanapadas
  .
• Magadha
  (Bihar) became most powerful due to location, fertile land, and strong rulers. Led to Mauryan Empire.
• Monarchical states (rajyas) and republican states (ganas or sanghas).
• In South India: Early kingdoms of Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas (Tamilakam) mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions and Sangam
  literature (300 BCE–300 CE).

Duties and Ideals of the King

• Kings known as raja, maharaja, samrat.
• Arthashastra
  (Kautilya): King must be energetic so officers follow.
• King’s duties: Protect subjects, ensure justice, judge fairly, prevent calamities.
• Mahabharata
  (Shanti Parva): Ethical conduct, justice in cases like robbery, theft.
• Pan-Indian vision: Concepts like Jambudvipa, Bharatavarsha, Prithivi, chakravarti kshetra, Ashvamedha yajna showed
  idea of ruling the whole subcontinent.

Council of Ministers and Administration

State has seven elements (Saptanga): King, ministers, territory, forts, treasury, army, allies.

• Mantri Parishad: Small council of ministers advised the king. Included treasurer, tax collector, legal advisor, army chief.
• Council could take decisions in king’s absence.
• Empires divided into provinces, districts, villages.
• Officers consulted local leaders (bankers, traders, artisans).

Gupta Period: Mantri (civil head), new minister of peace and war (sandhivigrahika), kumaramatyas (local officers). District office had head officer, banker, trader, artisan, revenue chief.

Later Periods
(300–800 CE): Decentralisation. Provinces (bhuktis/mandalas), districts (vishaya/kottams), villages. Village assemblies had autonomy.

Pallavas: Tax-free Brahmadeya villages. Village committees ( variyams) managed irrigation, gardens, temples.

Chalukyas:Agraharams (Brahmin settlements) as learning centres.

Cholas (Imperial): Efficient system. Provinces (mandalams), districts (valanadus), groups of villages (nadus), villages (urs). Village assemblies handled local affairs, revenue, irrigation, disputes.Uttaramerur inscription describes election by lottery (kudavolai system) for fair selection.

Ethics: Foundation of Law and Life

• Samatva (sameness): All beings share same matter and supreme consciousness.
• Rita: Cosmic order, harmony in nature and society.
• Dharma: Duty, righteousness, moral conduct. Not just religion but way of life.
• King’s duty: Protect people and ensure justice.
• Ashoka’s Dhamma: Moral conduct, non-violence, compassion.
• Ethics guided governance across periods.

Social Structures and Everyday Life

Varna and Jati:

• Early Vedic: Flexible, based on occupation, not strict birth.
• Four varnas: Brahmana (study, teach, rituals), Kshatriya (war, protection, justice), Vaishya (agriculture, trade),
  Shudra (service, various works).
• Later: More rigid.
  Jati
  (sub-groups) grew with new occupations, intermarriage, migration. Endogamy (marriage within group) became common.

Social Mobility: Rulers from different backgrounds (Nandas, Mauryas, Guptas etc.). Occupational changes seen in inscriptions (silk
weavers, Brahmins as land managers). In South, Sangam literature shows fluidity based on occupation.

Family and Society:

• Kula(family): Basic unit.
• Grama(village) →Visha→Jana.
• Gotra: Patrilineal clan from common ancestor (often rishi). Important for marriage.
• Four Ashramas: Brahmacharya (student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest), Sannyasa (renunciation).
• Sixteensamskaras(rites of passage).
• Four  Purusharthas: Dharma, Artha, Kama, Moksha.

Role of Women:

• Vedic period: Respected position. Participated in learning, rituals, assemblies. Women sages (Apala, Ghosha,
  Lopamudra). Goddesses like Usha and Aditi.
• Manusmriti : Gods rejoice where women are honoured.
• Later: Fluctuated. Women in household, agriculture, crafts. Queens as regents (e.g., Prabhavati Gupta). Sangam
  literature: Women in farming, trade, poetry (Avvaiyar). Chola period: Royal women supported temples.

Religious Life and Emergence of Bhakti

• Vedic: Worship of nature deities through yajnas and fire. No strict hierarchy.
• Trend of renunciation: Ascetics, shramaṇas (Buddha, Mahavira period).
• Later: Personal devotion to Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti.
• Bhakti: Direct connection with God, open to all. Promoted by Alvars (Vishnu) and Nayanmars (Shiva) in Tamil region from
  6th century CE. Rich Tamil devotional literature.